中国红树林生态系统生态价值评估

使用市场价值法 ,影子工程法 ,机会成本法和替代花费法等对中国现存自然分布的136 4 6hm2 的红树林生态系统的功能价值进行经济评估 ,评估结果表明 ,中国红树林总的年生态功能价值为 2 36 531万元 ,其中生物量价值 816 3万元 ,抗风消浪护岸价值 992 0 6万元 ,保护土壤价值 1156 92万元 ,固碳以减弱温室效应和释放O2 的价值 6 70 6万元 ,生物多样性保护即动物栖地价值 5470万元 ,林分养分积累价值 10 12万元 ,污染物生物降解和病虫害 2 82万元。     

Functional Role of Large Organisms in Intertidal Communities: Community Effects and Ecosystem Function

In marine soft sediments, large organisms are potentially important players in the nonlinear interactions that occur among animals, their food, and their chemical environment, all of which influence the contribution of benthos to ecosystem function. We investigated the consequences of removing large individuals of two functionally contrasting benthic communities on nutrient regeneration, microphyte standing stock, and macrobenthic community composition. The experiment was conducted at two adjacent sites that were physically similar but biologically different, one dominated by large deposit feeders and the other by large suspension feeders. Chemical fluxes were measured in experimental plots, and sediments were sampled to assess changes in macrofauna, sediment grain size, organic content, and microphyte standing stock. Our results demonstrate that the removal of large suspension feeders or deposit feeders influenced the flux of nitrogen and oxygen, surficial sediment characteristics, and community composition. In the deposit-feeder community, interactions between nutrient regeneration and grazing highlight important feedbacks between large macrofauna and biogeochemical processes and production by microphytes, indicating that the loss of large infauna driven by increased rates of anthropogenic disturbance may lead to functional extinction and cause shifts in community structure and ecosystem performance.     

农田生态系统种群结构多样性与系统微环境的关系——对几种多样性农田生态系统的分析评价

农田生物与其环境因素之间关系问题是农业生态系统研究的一个重点问题 ,生物与其所处环境因素之间关系的好坏 ,对生物的生长发育起着重要作用 ,进而影响着农田生态系统的功能发挥。单一生物与其环境因素之间的关系 ,通常是农田生态系统研究的重点。由多种生物组成的生物群落与其环境因素之间的关系 ,由于对农田生态系统的良好发育更起着关键制约作用 ,因而 ,也越来越多地受到研究人员的关注。对农田生态系统生物种群多样性 ,与多种生态环境因子之间关系的研究 ,也由于人们对多样化系统关注程度的提高而显得尤为重要。本文在对已有研究资料系…     

Spatial Structure of Pelagic Ecosystem Processes in the Global Ocean

We propose an operational definition of spatial structure in the oceanic ecosystem; it is equivalent to the large-scale, horizontal distribution of the dominant ecophysiological rate parameters for the questions of interest. In an important, particular case, the relevant rate parameters are those that characterize autotrophic production. In the ocean, these parameters are believed to be distributed in a manner that is not smoothly continuous. Rather, they seem to have a piecewise continuous distribution. This leads to a requirement to partition the ocean into a suite of provinces where the boundaries between the provinces mark the locations of abrupt changes in the magnitudes of the rate parameters. The area covered by a particular province represents an area of common physical forcing, insofar as the forcing is relevant to autotrophic production. The boundaries are taken to be elastic rather than fixed, such that they can respond to variations in forcing. At any given time, the boundaries can be located with the aid of remotely sensed imagery, especially ocean-color imagery. Received 7 January 1999; accepted 2 June 1999.     

Sentinel Nematodes of Land-Use Change and Restoration in Tallgrass Prairie

Changes in land use and the associated changes in land cover are recognized as the most important component of human-induced global change. Much attention has been focused on deforestation, but grasslands are among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. The North American tallgrass prairie is a dramatic example, exhibiting a greater than 95% decline in historical area. Renewed interest in prairie conservation and restoration has highlighted the need for ecological indicators of disturbance and recovery in native systems, including the belowground component. The tallgrass prairie differs from the agricultural systems that have replaced it in having greater diversity and heterogeneity of resources, less physical soil disturbance (although other disturbances, such as fire and grazing, are prominent), and greater nitrogen limitation. Understanding the responses of nematode taxa to these characteristic differences is crucial to the development and improvement of community indices, but while knowledge of disturbance responses by individual taxa is accumulating, the level of necessary taxonomic resolution remains in question. Although nematode communities generally are better described for temperate grasslands than for other natural ecosystems, identification of sentinel taxa is further confounded by high levels of diversity, and both spatial and temporal heterogeneity.     

Population Development and Reproduction of Fungus- and Bacterium Feeding Nematodes in the Presence of Insect Growth Regulators

The insect growth regulators (IGRs), diflubenzuron and BAY SIR 8514, at 300 and 1,000 ppm a.i. in potato dextrose agar (PDA) inhibited the radial growth of the fungus Rhizoctonia solani host of Aphelenchus avenae. The IGRs had no effect on the growth of the bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes host of Acrobeloides nanus and Diplogaster iheritieri. At 59 ppm a.i., neither IGR inhibited the population development of A. nanus and D. iheritieri on P. pseudoalcaligenes; however, diflubenzuron stimulated the population development of D. iheritieri. At 300 ppm, both IGRs inhibited the population development of A. nanus and D. iheritieri; however, BAY SIR 8514 was more effective than diflubenzuron except on A. nanus L₄''s. At 300 ppm, only BAY SIR 8514 affected the population development of A. avenae, except the L₄''s. At 1,000 ppm, both IGRs inhibited development, except diflubenzuron for L₂ and L₃''s. Again, BAY SIR 8514 was more effective than diflubenzuron. With single females of A. nanus and D. iheritieri, both IGRs at 300 ppm reduced egg laying, inhibited embryonation, and slowed larval development.     

Assessing Invader Roles Within Changing Ecosystems: Historical and Experimental Perspectives on an Exotic Mussel in an Urbanized Lagoon

It is often difficult to accurately assess the long-term effects of invaders because of a lack of data and the changing nature of ecosystems. However, available historical information can be used to make comparisons with current conditions and generate hypotheses that can be tested experimentally. This approach was used to examine changes in the bivalve community of Mission Bay, San Diego, California, USA. A 20-year dataset on subtidal bivalves shows a marked increase in abundance of the exotic mussel Musculista senhousia, and concomitant declines in species richness and the abundance of the native Solen rostriformis. Currently, Musculista also dominates the tidal creeks of a remnant salt marsh and an adjacent restored marsh, and is 100 times more abundant than any native bivalve species. A comparison of the bivalves now present in the remnant marsh creek to the community present 35 years ago demonstrates that while Musculista increased in abundance, the native Chione fluctifraga disappeared from the creek. In the same time frame, two other natives, Macoma nasuta and C. undatella, appeared in the system. Experiments demonstrate that the growth and survivorship of the surface-dwelling, suspension-feeding Chione spp. significantly decrease in the presence of Musculista, whereas the deeper-dwelling, deposit-feeding Macoma nasuta shows no such inhibition. Viewing these results in the broader context of physical change within the wetland explains some patterns of observed change and suggests effects due at least in part to Musculista, but also demonstrates the complexities associated with assessing long-term patterns in systems affected by multiple factors. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Population Dynamics of Plant-parasitic Nematodes on Cover Crops of Corn and Sorghum

Buildup of plant-parasitic nematode populations on corn (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max), and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) were compared in 1991 and 1992. Final population densities (Pf) of Meloidogyne incognita were lower following sorghum than after soybean in both seasons, and Pf after sorghum was lower than Pf after corn in 1992. In both seasons, Pf differed among the sorghum cultivars used. No differences in Pf on corn, sorghum, and soybean were observed for Criconemella spp. (a mixture of C. sphaerocephala and C. ornata) or Paratrichodorus minor in either season. Pf levels of Pratylenchus spp. (a mixture of P. brachyurus and P. scribneri) were greatest after corn in 1992, but no differences with crop treatments were observed in 1991. When data from field tests conducted with corn and sorghum during the past four seasons were pooled, negative linear relationships between ln(Pf/Pi) and ln(Pi) were observed for Criconemella spp. and P. minor on each crop, and for M. incognita on corn (Pi = initial population density). Although ln(Pf/Pi) and ln(Pi) were not related for M. incognita with pooled sorghum data, separate relationships were derived for various sorghum cultivars. Regression equations from pooled data were used to obtain estimates of equilibrium density and maximum reproductive rate, and these estimates were used to construct models expressing nematode Pf across a range of initial densities. Many of these models were robust, encompassing a range of sites, season, crop cultivars, and planting dates. Quadratic models derived from pooled field data provided an alternative method for expressing Pf as a function of Pi.     

Ecological opportunity and the origin of adaptive radiations

Ecological opportunity – through entry into a new environment, the origin of a key innovation or extinction of antagonists – is widely thought to link ecological population dynamics to evolutionary diversification. The population‐level processes arising from ecological opportunity are well documented under the concept of ecological release. However, there is little consensus as to how these processes promote phenotypic diversification, rapid speciation and adaptive radiation. We propose that ecological opportunity could promote adaptive radiation by generating specific changes to the selective regimes acting on natural populations, both by relaxing effective stabilizing selection and by creating conditions that ultimately generate diversifying selection. We assess theoretical and empirical evidence for these effects of ecological opportunity and review emerging phylogenetic approaches that attempt to detect the signature of ecological opportunity across geological time. Finally, we evaluate the evidence for the evolutionary effects of ecological opportunity in the diversification of Caribbean Anolis lizards. Some of the processes that could link ecological opportunity to adaptive radiation are well documented, but others remain unsupported. We suggest that more study is required to characterize the form of natural selection acting on natural populations and to better describe the relationship between ecological opportunity and speciation rates.     

Effective Use of Marine Algal Products in the Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes

Algal extracts were ineffective against Meloidogyne spp., Panagrellus redivivus, and Neoaplectana carpocapsae at 1.0% aqueous concentrations, with the exception of Spatoglossum schroederi. S. schroederi killed Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, M. acrita, and Hoplolaimus galeatus at concentrations of 1.0, 0.75, and 0.50%. Extracts from S. schroederi at a concentration of 1.0% were ineffective against Hirschmanniella caudacrena and Belonolaimus longicaudatus. Spatoglossum schroederi, Botryocladia occidentalis, and Bryothamnion triquestrum when used as soil amendments at 0.5-1.0% concentrations (by weight) produced significant reduction of root gall development in tomato plants infected with M. incognita. Tomato plant growth was significantly improved by these algae, as well as by Caulerpa prolifera. Soil amendments of S. schroederi at concentrations of 0.5 and 1.0% significantly reduced root galling of tomato infected with M. incognita, M. arenaria, and M. javanica. Tomatoes grown in algal-soil mixture produced significantly heavier shoots and roots than plants raised in autoclaved soil. No significant differences in root-knot indices, nor in fresh and dry weights of tomato, were noted between the two concentrations of algal-soil mixture.     

Relationships Between the Population Density of Meloidogyne incognita and Growth of Tobacco

Seedlings of tobacco cultivars resistant (NC95) and susceptible (McNair 30) to Meloidogyne incognita were grown in 15-cm diameter clay pots containing steamed soil infested with 0, l, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 eggs of M. incognita per 1.5 cm³ soil. Plants were maintained in the greenhouse for 3 weeks, and then transferred to the field for 12 weeks. Growth of tobacco was expressed separately as dry weight of leaves and as plant height. Least squares regression analysis showed that tobacco growth-nematode density interactions are in agreement with Seinhorst''s exponential model Y = m + (l-m) czp. Tobacco growth was not affected significantly as nematode density was increased from 0 to tolerance levels, which were approximately 2 and 1 eggs per 1.5 cm³ soil for the resistant and susceptible cultivars, respectively. As nematode density was increased beyond tolerance level, tobacco growth decreased sharply until a minimum yield was approached. The minimum leaf weights and plant heights of the resistant cultivar at the highest nematode density were greater than those of the susceptible cultivar.     

Survival and Movement of Insect Parasitic Nematodes in Poultry Manure and Their Infectivity Against Musca domestica

Survival, infectivity, and movement of three insect parasitic nematodes (Steinernema feltiae All strain, S. bibionis SN strain, and Heterorhabditis heliothidis NC strain) in poultry manure were tested under laboratory conditions. The majority (70-100%) of the nematodes died within 18 hours after exposure to the manure. Nematodes exposed to manure slurry for 6 hours killed at least 95% of the house fly larvae, Musca domestica, but nematodes exposed for 12 hours achieved less than 40% larval mortality. The majority (90-97%) of the three nematode species applied to the manure remained on the surface. Poor survival and limited movement of nematodes in poultry manure appear to make them unlikely candidates for biocontrol of filth flies in this habitat.     

Predicting Plant Diversity Response to Disturbance: Applicability of the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis and Mass Ratio Hypothesis

Predicting the relationships between disturbance, biodiversity and productivity of ecosystems continue to preoccupy ecologists and resource managers. Two hypotheses underpin many of the discussions. The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH), which proposes that biodiversity peaks at intermediate levels of disturbance, is often extended to predict that productivity follows the same response pattern. The Mass Ratio Hypothesis (MRH) proposes that the biological traits of the dominant species are the critical drivers of ecosystem function (e.g., productivity) and that these species increase in biomass rapidly after disturbance then stabilize. As a consequence, species diversity first peaks then declines after disturbance as a few species dominate the site. Both provide a conceptual link among disturbance, species diversity and productivity (an index of ecosystem function). We assessed the current state of empirical support for these two hypotheses with a literature survey and determined if their conformance is related to ecosystem type or site productivity. Conformance of IDH reported in past reviews (considering all ecosystems) ranged from 16 to 21%. This contrasts with our finding that in terrestrial ecosystems conformance to IDH was 46% (22 of 48 studies), 17% studies reported non-compliance, and 23% reported inconclusive results. Most studies explained their results with respect to IDH or MRH. Only two studies were specifically designed to test the validity of IDH or MRH. We conclude that (i) the IDH is mostly applicable to predict species diversity response to disturbance in upland sites of medium to high productivity and the MRH is applicable to organic sites of low productivity; (ii) there is a critical need for more studies specifically designed to test these hypotheses in natural ecosystems using common protocols; and (iii) enhanced understanding of these models will add value in refining management policies and in the selection of meaningful diversity indicators of sustainability.     

The effect of elevated CO2 on growth and competition in experimental phytoplankton communities

We report an experiment designed to identify the effect of elevated CO₂ on species of phytoplankton in a simple laboratory system. Major taxa of phytoplankton differ in their ability to take up CO₂, which might lead to predictable changes in the growth rate of species and thereby shifts in the composition of phytoplankton communities in response to rising CO₂. Six species of phytoplankton belonging to three major taxa (cyanobacteria, diatoms and chlorophytes) were cultured in atmospheres whose CO₂ concentration was gradually increased from ambient levels to 1000 parts per million over about 100 generations and then maintained for a further 200 generations at elevated CO₂. The experimental design allowed us to trace a predictive sequence, from physiological features to the growth response of species to elevated CO₂ in pure culture, from the growth response in pure culture to competitive ability in pairwise mixtures and from pairwise competitive ability to shifts in the relative abundance of species in the full community of all six species. CO₂ altered the dynamics of growth in a fashion consistent with known differences among major taxa in their ability to take up and use CO₂. This pure‐culture response was partly successful in predicting the outcome of competition in pairwise mixtures, especially the enhanced competitive ability of chlorophytes relative to cyanobacteria, although generally statistical support was weak. The competitive response in pairwise mixtures was a good predictor of changes in competitive ability in the full community. Hence, there is a potential for forging a logical chain of inferences for predicting how phytoplankton communities will respond to elevated CO₂. Clearly further extensive experiments will be required to validate this approach in the greater complexity found in diverse communities and environments of natural systems.     

Structural and Functional Changes in the Leaves of Plants from Steppe Communities as Affected by Aridization of the Eurasian Climate

Morphological and physiological characteristics of leaves from plant species collected in steppe communities in the various climatic zones in Eurasia were compared. The changes in leaf structure correlated with the major climatic factors. The mean thickness of leaves increased with increasing mean temperature of July and decreasing mean precipitation, which corresponded to aridity increase. The increased leaf thickness correlated with an increase in the specific leaf weight. The content of chlorophylls (a + b) in leaves greatly varied with plant habitats, whereas the chlorophyll a/b ratio remained unchanged. The chlorophyll content in leaf tissues had a general tendency to decrease with increasing leaf thickness. The leaf chlorophyll content positively correlated (R ² = 0.77) with the proportion of chlorenchyma in leaf tissues. It is concluded that steppe plants adapt to climate aridization at the structural level by increasing the proportion of protective heterotrophic components of the leaf without changing the functional activity of photosynthetic tissues.     

Specificity in the symbiotic association of Lotus corniculatus and Rhizobium loti from natural populations

To test whether Rhizobium loti are coadapted to nodulate local plant genotypes, we competed R. loti strains in a common environment with clonally propagated Lotus corniculatus. Both the plants and bacterial strains were originally collected from natural populations in three localities and the R. loti strains used were distinguishable by enzyme electrophoretic markers and differed in geographical origin relative to host plant origin. The proportions of nodules occupied by symbiont strains varied widely and depended on both host plant and symbiont genotype. Nonrandom nodulation patterns resulted primarily from preferential nodulation of host genotypes by the symbiont strain that had been associated with the host in the natural environment. Symbionts nodulating their original hosts were preferentially found in nodules on adventitious tap roots as opposed to the younger, lateral roots (for one host-symbiont pair) or in large nodules, independent of location on the root system (for a second host-symbiont pair). The proportion of nodules occupied by a symbiont on novel host genotypes varied, ranging from nearly random expectation to a significant reduction in the proportion of nodules occupied. The analysis of the bacteria recovered from 994 nodules by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis revealed that 952 (95.8%) nodules were occupied by one of the four inoculant strains and 11 (1.1%) were co-occupied by two inoculant strains. A total of 31 (3.1%) nodules were occupied by strains that did not match the electrophoretic profiles of the original inoculant strains. Based on the comparison of multilocus profiles for 23 enzyme loci, we concluded that these bacteria were foreign strains and not recombinants of the original inoculant strains. Our findings indicate a strong host genotype by strain interaction underlying the outcome of rhizobial competition for nodulation sites and suggest there are distinct mechanisms leading to differential recognition of compatible host and symbiont genotypes.     

Population‐specificity of heat stress gene induction in northern and southern eelgrass Zostera marina populations under simulated global warming

Summer heat waves have already resulted in mortality of coastal communities, including ecologically important seagrass meadows. Gene expression studies from controlled experiments can provide important insight as to how species/genotypes react to extreme events that will increase under global warming. In a common stress garden, we exposed three populations of eelgrass, Zostera marina, to extreme sea surface temperatures, simulating the 2003‐European heat wave. Populations came from locations widely differing in their thermal regime, two northern European locations [Ebeltoft (Kattegat), Doverodde (Limfjord, Baltic Sea)], and one southern population from Gabicce Mare (Adriatic Sea), allowing to test for population specificity in the response to a realistic heat stress event. Eelgrass survival and growth as well as the expression of 12 stress associated candidate genes were assessed during and after the heat wave. Contrary to expectations, all populations suffered equally from 3 weeks of heat stress in terms of shoot loss. In contrast, populations markedly differed in multivariate measures of gene expression. While the gene expression profiles converged to pre‐stress values directly after the heat wave, stress correlated genes were upregulated again 4 weeks later, in line with the observed delay in shoot loss. Target genes had to be selected based on functional knowledge in terrestrial plants, nevertheless, 10/12 genes were induced relative to the control treatment at least once during the heat wave in the fully marine plant Z. marina. This study underlines the importance of realistic stress and recovery scenarios in studying the impact of predicted climate change.