Seasonal changes in the reproductive organs and plasma and pituitary hormone content of the male Bennett's wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus vufogriseus)

In a number of species of seasonally breeding marsupial, the male is fertile throughout the year but there is a marked seasonal change in weight of the accessory sexual glands. In this study, body weight, prostate, epididymis and testis weights and plasma concentrations of testosterone, LH and prolactin and pituitary content of LH and prolactin were determined in male Bennett's wallabies shot at 1–2 month intervals over a period of 17 months. There was a highly significant increase in prostate weight which was coincident with the breeding season for this species. A small but significant increase in testis weight was also observed but epididymis weight remained unchanged. Plasma testosterone concentrations were significantly increased at a time coincident with the increase in prostate weight. Plasma prolactin and LH concentrations were low in most animals and remained unchanged during the study. In contrast, pituitary prolactin and LH contents showed highly significant changes, with increasing and peak hormone content preceding maximum prostate weight and plasma testosterone concentrations by several months. While these latter results suggest a role for prolactin and LH in the seasonal control of the reproductive organs in the male wallaby, a more intensive study of the pattern of secretion of these hormones and possibly more sensitive hormone assays are required to understand their relative roles in regulating the annual cycle of prostate growth.     

The annual reproductive cycle of the Smooth newt (Triturus vulgaris) in England

Newts were collected throughout the year from both breeding ponds and terrestrial sites and were weighed, measured and dissected; in males, the testes were examined histologically. Smooth newts show post-nuptial gametogenesis such that, during late summer and autumn they are producing mature gametes for the following year's breeding season. In males, the testes are at their smallest size during the spring, when they consist mostly of immature sperm cysts and evacuated tissue, mature sperm having been evacuated into the vasa deferentia during the newts' migration to water. Evacuated testicular tissue is glandular in function and there is evidence that secretions from this tissue control the development of secondary sexual characters: the dorsal crest, fringes of skin on the toes and the dorsal cloacal gland. In both sexes, fat body and liver weights are lowest in the spring and increase in the autumn. In females, oocytes vary in size, depending on the amount of yolk they contain. Only the larger oocytes are laid in a current breeding season, the smaller ones being retained and yolked in late summer and autumn. In both sexes, measures of fecundity (testis size in males, oocyte number in females) are strongly correlated with body size. The finding that male newts have a finite supply of sperm during the breeding season leads to an interpretation of various aspects of male courtship behaviour. These are adaptations for conserving sperm and allocating it to courtship encounters in a way likely to promote male reproductive success.     

The mating system and male mating success of the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in Florida

The mating system of the Virginia opossum, a solitary, nocturnal marsupial, was studied over a period of two years in north–central Florida. There were two mating seasons each year, both lasting about four weeks and starting in mid-January and late April, respectively. Radio-tracking males and females revealed that, independent of body size, males doubled their home ranges during these periods to include an average of 5.9 females within their new ranges. Females were visited regularly and, on the night of oestrus, males directly competed for access to the female. Dominance and hence mating success was strongly related to body mass but not age. Dominant males weighed on average 3.18 kg (N = 20) compared to 2.65 kg of unsuccessful males. The largest of the competing males was successful in 20 of 23 cases involving at least two competitors. Individual male mating success varied from zero to three matings during a breeding season, but the range was probably underestimated. Mate searching activities were costly, as most males lost weight during both mating seasons. Weight changes were a function of body mass, with males over 2.2 kg losing up to 23% in weight and smaller males gaining weight. There was also evidence that male breeding activities entailed a survival cost.     

Body weight, gonad development and moult in the Tawny owl (Strix alum)

Gonad development, moult and seasonal changes in body weight and composition in the Tawny owl Strix aluco were studied by examining the carcasses of 369 owls (mostly road casualties) supplemented by 112 weights of live birds. In breeding females laying was preceded by the accumulation of fat and to a lesser extent protein which meant that they weighed more at this time (February/March) than at any other. Females declined in weight after laying but were still heavy during incubation. In contrast, males and non-breeding females did not increase in weight before the start of the breeding season. Juveniles reached or even exceeded adult weight well before independence due to the deposition of fat. Even after the exclusion of diseased or contaminated individuals, 9·4% of the birds examined were identified as starving; most of these were in the autumn and were probably newly-independent young wandering in search of territories. In both sexes gonad maturation was of brief duration coinciding with the period (mid-March to mid-April) in which eggs are normally laid. Ovarian growth was biphasic. In the three months prior to the breeding season ovarian condition in different birds was positively correlated with body weight and it appeared that the largest ovarian follicles of females in poor condition failed to attain the size from which rapid growth to final ovulation occurs. in males testis size in the breeding season was correlated with pectoral muscle weight (an index to protein condition) but not body weight. The majority of adults commenced wing moult in June. The average duration of primary moult was estimated to be 77 days. Healthy birds replaced the primaries of both wings at the same rate but most diseased birds moulted asymmetrically and/or out of season. First-year birds renewed their body feathers between September and November. In the Tawny owl territory establishment, breeding and moult are temporally separated.     

Seasonal variations in daily sperm production rate of rhesus and bonnet monkeys

Daily sperm production (DSP) rate was estimated in adult male rhesus and bonnet monkeys to evaluate seasonal changes in the gametogenic activity of the testes. Three monkeys of each species were castrated during breeding and non-breeding seasons and DSP rate was estimated by enumerating the homogenization-resistant spermatid nuclei of steps 13 and 14. Results indicated a significant reduction in the DSP rate per testis during the non-breeding season in two species, along with a marked decline in the testis weight. However, the gametogenic capacity of seminiferous tubules did not appear to be markedly affected during non-breeding season, as the DSP rate per gram parenchyma of testis was only marginally reduced. The seasonal changes in DSP were much more pronounced in the rhesus than in the bonnet monkey. The feasibility of circanual rhythm in DSP of sub-human primates to form a baseline for the study of reproductive function in male is discussed.     

Reproduction and survival of suricates (Suricata suricatta) in the southern Kalahari

In most respects, the demography of Kalahari suricates (Suricata suricatta) resembles that of other social mongooses. Average group size varies from four to nine, and groups typically include several mature females, of which one is responsible for the majority of breeding attempts. Breeding females show a postpartum oestrus; gestation is around 60 days; litter size is three to five pups at emergence and females rarely breed before the age of 24 months. In contrast, annual survival rates (0.20 for pups and 0.43 for animals over one year old) are lower than those recorded in other species. Breeding frequency is related to rainfall and breeding can cease altogether when rainfall is unusually low. In a year when this occurred, group size eroded rapidly and over 60% of groups became extinct. Total numbers were slow to recover during the following year because emigration by females was infrequent and new groups did not form in vacant ranges created by the extinction of groups. High rates of group extinction have been found in other cooperative breeders and may occur because breeding success and survival show inverse density dependence.     

Hormonal Correlates of Social Rank in an Asocial Species, the Common Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula)

Dominance hierarchies play an important role in access to mates or resources in many species. Rank is sometimes correlated with circulating testosterone levels or morphological traits such as body weight. The relationship of glucocorticoid secretion and rank, however, is less clear. In this study, we investigated the relationship of male rank to body weight, circulating testosterone and cortisol concentrations in captive possum triads (Trichosurus vulpecula). We carried out two experiments to examine hierarchy formation and the effects of castration of the dominant male during the non‐breeding season. A third experiment measured the effects of removal of the dominant male from a stable hierarchy during the breeding season. We found that dominant male rank was significantly correlated with higher circulating testosterone levels during periods of hierarchy formation and during the breeding season but not during periods of hierarchy stability in the non‐breeding season. Lack of correlation between plasma testosterone concentration and rank after male castration suggests that stable social rank is not dependent on hormone level and may be more dependent on behavioural traits. Any biocontrol measures that rely on manipulation of hormone levels may be unreliable when applied to unstable hierarchical situations, including the establishment of territories by subadult males, and the pre‐breeding season when circulating testosterone concentrations peak in males and a period of hierarchy establishment may occur.     

Effects of climate on reproduction in the European wild rabbit (Oryctolugus cuniculus)

Reproduction in a population of European wild rabbits occupying parkland habitat in East Anglia showed an annual seasonality in terms of numbers of emergent young, male testes size and an index of female oestrous status. Weather conditions showed marked variation over the four-year study period with significantly higher minimum ground temperatures and hours of daily sunshine, and less snowfall recorded during the second two years. Parailel shifts in reproductive seasonality were found with male testes size peaking in January and February as opposed to May and April, first female oestrus recorded one month earlier (January compared to February), and young emerging over an average of 5.5 instead of 4.5 months each year and their first appearance above ground advanced by two months from April to February. Mean annual productivity increased from 7.2 and 6.1 emergent young per female, to 10.1 and 9.1 over the four years, while the number of adults present in the population at the start of the breeding season increased from 22 to 45, with females always outnumbering males. The usefulness is demonstrated of a noninvasive index of vulva appearance, and morphometric measures of testes to determine female oestrous status and estimates of male testicular weight in wild populations.
The reported changes in reproduction are probably mediated through the influence of climatic variables on the quality or quantity of food available to the rabbits. These data demonstrate the possible effects of predicted global warming on productivity in the rabbit and highlight the major influence of climate on reproductive seasonality in this important pest species.     

The population ecology of Rattus exulans on Tiritiri Matangi Island,and a model of comparative population dynamics in New Zealand

Abstract

On Tiritiri, a small predator-free island in northern New Zealand, kiore (Rattus exulans) were live and snap trapped in grassland and forest. In both habitats, kiore abundance peaked in late summer/autumn. The increase followed a 3 month breeding season during which females produced two to three litters, each averaging 7 young. During the population decline in autumn and winter, animals lost weight. Few bred in the breeding season of their birth and none lived to breed in a second breeding season, so the population consisted of distinct age cohorts. These patterns may relate to a highly seasonal food supply.

Kiore elsewhere in New Zealand show seasonal breeding, but the length of breeding, sexual maturation, and litter size vary. Other studies of kiore in the Pacific show less marked seasonal fluctuations, longer breeding seasons, and smaller litters. We propose a model to explain the variation in rodent demography in New Zealand. The model is based on the seasonal availability of food, along with the modifying influences of predation and dispersal.     

Reproduction in the male sub-Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus tropicalis

The reproductive tracts of male sub-Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus tropicalis ( n = 123), taken at Gough Island (40° 20'S, 9° 54'W) between November 1977 and October 1978, were examined. The presence of spermatozoa in the epididymal tubules showed that all males ≥4 years old had reached puberty, and the marked slower increase in mean testis weight and baculum length suggested that sexual (social) maturity was approached by 8-year-olds. Full adulthood was attained at 10–11 years of age based on the peak in mean testis and prostate weights, and mean baculum length. Secondary sexual characteristics were only fully developed in males ≥9 years old. A significant decline in mean testosterone concentration, and in testis, epididymis and prostate weights showed that adult males were reproductively quiescent during winter from May to July when seminiferous and epididymal tubules had lowest mean diameters with no spermatozoa present. Both the mean plasma testosterone concentration and mean testis weight peaked twice during the austral summer. The first peak coincided with the breeding season, and the second peak with the moulting period when adult males were impotent. Photoperiodic cueing might explain this seasonal trend.     

北京大兴地区黑线仓鼠种群繁殖生态研究

黑线仓鼠(Cricetulus barabensis)是我国华北地区广泛分布的农田主要害鼠之一。1982年9月到1985年3月,作者在北京、天津及河北省一些地区,调查了它的分布和群落结构并研究其种群生态,本文仅就北京郊区大兴县黑线仓鼠的种群繁殖问题进行讨论。     

Seasonal changes in condition, reproduction and fecundity in the wild European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

A total of 1248 rabbits ( Oryctolagus amiculus ) were shot on farmland in Cambridgeshire, UK over a period of three years. This provided pooled estimates of changes in reproductive and body condition and of fecundity during the annual cycle. Both males and females showed a significant annual cycle in reproductive condition as indicated by changes in the size of the gonads and accessory glands of reproduction. No females were pregnant during October, November and December, but males with active spermatogenesis were found during every month of the year. The distribution of pregnancies through the year showed that the reproductive season varied greatly between individuals. Peak fecundity occurred during April, May and June. On average, each female conceived 23.9 and suckled 17.2 young per breeding season. Proportionately more young died during the early stages of the reproductive season. The body weight of adult males, but not of females, varied seasonally. Body condition (kidney fat index) in adults was maximal at the start of the breeding season and minimal at the end.     

Reproductive strategies and the influence of date of birth on growth and sexual development of an aseasonally-breeding ungulate: Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)

Unlike most species of deer, Reeves' muntjac does not have a seasonal reproductive cycle. Births are equally distributed throughout the year and, irrespective of season of birth, females start breeding when they have reached a minimum body weight of about 10 kg. A significantly smaller proportion of females is born in the autumn/winter than the spring/summer, but there is no effect of maternal age or condition on foetal sex ratios for first or subsequent pregnancies. Whilst aseasonal breeding increases female productivity, males are only able to hold territories encompassing the ranges of a number of does for a relatively short period of time. It is argued that for muntjac there is much less inter-sexual variation in lifetime reproductive success than for seasonally-breeding polygynous cervids. Hence, although muntjac are sexually dimorphic and polygynous, females do not invest preferentially in male offspring.
Young males can be fertile from 36 weeks of age, when their first antlers are still in velvet. Whilst season of birth has no effect on the rate of sexual development in females, it does for males, with autumn-born male fawns attaining sexual maturity earliest. This accelerated development occurs in the period following independence from the mother, and there is no evidence of a maternal cost in producing male fawns. Since the canine tusks are the main weapons for intra-sexual conflict, there could be clear gains in terms of reproductive success for males that attain sexual maturity, adult weight and adult tusk size quickly, even though their first antlers are much smaller than those of older bucks. The hypothesis is presented that, for muntjac, the majority of a male's lifetime reproductive success is achieved relatively early in life when the canine tusks are in pristine condition, and that bucks lose their territories, and associated access to oestrous does, once the canines are broken.     

Life history adaptations of Gasterosteus aculeatus in a Mediterranean wetland

Synopsis The life cycle of leiurus-type Gasterosteus aculeatus occurring in a Mediterranean coastal wetland is described. Fish have a low number of lateral plates, short spines and marked sexual dimorphism in size. The life cycle is strictly annual, adults dying shortly after breeding. Adult fish migrate into seasonally-flooded freshwater marshes to breed, and the young migrate back to brackish water to pass the summer and autumn. Breeding occurs in March at water temperatures of about 10°C, the season lasting about 50 days. Growth of fish occurs throughout the year, but differs from year to year, resulting in variable adult size. Maximum gonadal investment of male fish is in autumn, whereas that of females is in spring. Gonadal investment of female fish, as measured by gonado-somatic index and fecundity, is higher than in other studied leiurus populations, but the number of clutches produced in a season is probably low. These differences in life history from other studied populations of sticklebacks are seen as adaptations to a mediterranean-type climate (high summer temperatures, seasonality of water bodies) and to heavy predation by fish-eating birds.     

Asynchronous male and female life cycles in the sexually dimorphic, harem-forming isopod Paragnathia formica (Crustacea: Isopoda)

The complex life history of the sexually dimorphic, harem-forming isopod Paragnathia formica Hesse is described, combining published information with new observations. The results of a two-and-a-half year field study, carried out within the animal's saltmarsh habitat, are presented, revealing significant differences in the life cycles of males and females. Settlement to the breeding habitat of final stage male and female larvae, derived from the same annual generation, was recorded at very different times of the year. The total lifespan of males was shown to be twice that of females.
The larvae, temporary ectoparasites of estuarine fish, and the non-feeding, burrow-living adults are described and categorized into several developmental phases, whose numbers were recorded during the course of the study.
The annual production of larvae during a limited period in the autumn, and the subsequent settlement of final stage larval females and males the following year, were monitored. Larval females entered the burrows of adult males in the spring to breed, and died after releasing viviparous broods in the autumn. Larval males settled later in the summer, reaching adulthood in the autumn and overwintering before breeding some 18 months after their birth and dying at the end of the breeding season. Adult males thus bred with females from the next generation. The differences in male and female life cycles led to great seasonal variations in adult sex ratios, a huge winter bias towards males contrasting with a brief excess of females in the summer.     

Effect of season and photoperiod on the follicle-stimulating hormone receptors in a subtropical bird

Annual changes in and photoperiodic influence oh the weight of gonads, a parameter of gonadal activity, are much smaller in female birds than in males. Effect of season and photoperiod on the follicle-stimulating hormone receptors in the testis or ovary was studied using a subtropical weaver finch. The number of follicle-stimulating hormone binding sites per unit testicular weight showed a peak in the non-breeding phase; while the total number of binding sites per two testes was maximal in the breeding phase and minimal in the regressive phase. In contrast, seasonal changes in follicle-stimulating hormone binding sites in the ovary were less marked. Exposure to short-day during the breeding phase induced marked decreases in the numbers of binding sites per unit testicular weight and per two testes. These numbers markedly increased after transfer to long-day during the non-breeding phase. However, there was no significant effect of short-day or long-day exposure on follicle-stimulating hormone binding sites in the ovary. These results suggest that photoperiod is an effective environmental factor in the regulation of follicle-stimulating hormone receptors in the testis and the effect is manifested by pronounced changes in the testicular weight during annual breeding cycle.     

Monogamy as a Rule Rather than Exception in Nocturnal Lemurs: the Case of the Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus medius

According to present hypotheses on the evolution of life history traits and social systems in Malagasy lemurs, nocturnality and infant parking are associated with a solitary lifestyle and a polygynous mating system. However, theoretically extreme seasonality of reproduction could limit the number of females that can be monopolized by a given male and thus hinder the evolution of polygyny. The aim of this ongoing study is to test these contrasting expectations by looking at the social and mating system of the fat-tailed dwarf lemur Cheirogaleus medius . This species hibernates for up to 7 mo, so that time for breeding and raising offspring is extremely limited.
A mark-recapture study in western Madagascar was combined with observations and radio-tracking of 36 individuals during the rainy seasons from 1995 to 1998. According to these data, fat-tailed dwarf lemurs live in permanent sleeping groups consisting of a male and a female (n = 8) or one male and two females (n = 1). One or two offspring from the previous year were frequently observed to sleep together with an adult pair. Members of each sleeping group were the exclusive users of their nest holes and home ranges. During the birth season, males and females took turns at baby-sitting their offspring. Females without paternal help were unable to raise their offspring successfully. Since females did not exhibit oestrus synchrony, the ultimate selective factor favouring pair-living could be obligate paternal investment. The results, together with the lack of sexual size dimorphism and relatively small testis size, suggest that the fat-tailed dwarf lemur lives in family groups with a monogamous mating system. A review of the mating systems of nocturnal lemurs shows that monogamy appears to be the rule rather the exception.     

Reproductive traits in Nubian dairy goats

For 12 months, ten Nubian doe goats were examined daily for oestrus and blood was obtained twice weekly for serum progesterone (P) analysis. Before the onset of regular ovulatory cycles in the autumn, brief increases in serum P were noted. Ovulation without oestrus was associated with the onset of the breeding season in five of 13 instances. Ovarian activity as assessed by corpus luteum (CL) function began in either September or October and ceased in either January or February in nonpregnant does. CL function was absent postpartum until the beginning of the next breeding season. An instance of male pseudohermaphroditism and mucometra is noted.     

The lateral scent organs of Arvicola terrestris (Rodentia: Microtinae)

The lateral scent organs of Arvicola terrestris (L.) are basically similar in construction to those of A. scherman (Shaw), and differ in that they do not express long cylinders of secretion at the end of the breeding season, and that frequent epidermal vesicles are observed. During the year the organ of the male undergoes a cycle of activity with a peak in secretory activity shortly following the peak in the cycle of testis weight. Bilateral castration causes a marked involution of the organ in the male, which can be reconstituted by the administration of exogenous testosterone.