A survey of research in American zoos and aquariums

A 26-item questionnaire was distributed to 153 American zoos, aquariums, and animal parks. A response rate of 78% was achieved after a second mailing. The results indicate that most zoos encourage research and have engaged in recent research activities of some type. Behavioral and reproductive research are the most common types of scientific activity, while nonprimate mammals are the most likely research subjects. Research activity is correlated with attendance and with academic affiliations. Nearly half of the institutions surveyed reported that their research efforts were expanding.     

Programs for invasive research in North American zoos and aquariums

Zoo-based research in North America is an emerging field, which has progressed from an ad hoc approach in a small number of zoos to a coordinated, integrated network of scientists with recognized research programs in approximately one half of the accredited institutions in North America. The disciplines most active in these programs--veterinary medicine and pathology, nutrition, reproductive biology, contraception, and behavior--are now becoming coordinated in zoos through Scientific Advisory Groups. Zoos with research programs generally establish either an institutional animal care and use committee or another committee to evaluate research proposals. In addition to scientific merit and experimental design, zoos evaluate proposals based on factors such as priority by conservation program/identified need; direct effect on species conservation, species type, and appropriateness; availability and location of animals; operational requirements/logistics; communication between institutions; and available funding. Euthanasia is considered only in rare circumstances. Zoo-based research has evolved into an integral component in animal management and conservation programs by providing practical information that is used to improve animal care, well-being, health, and reproduction. However, the degree to which zoos participate in invasive research varies considerably among institutions, due not only to resource limitations but also to how the term "invasive" is defined and accepted at each institution. A more standardized approach among zoological institutions for examining and approving research projects that are supported by zoo-based conservation programs would greatly facilitate the wildlife research efforts of North American zoos.     

A survey of research in North American zoos and aquariums

To assess the current status of research in zoos and aquariums, a 36-item survey, which replicated and expanded upon an earlier survey [Finlay and Maple, 1986], was sent to 173 American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) institutions. A response rate of 71% was achieved after a second mailing. The results show that the role of research in AZA institutions has increased in the last decade. The percentage of zoos and aquariums that report conducting research, that list research as an objective of the institution, and that have a research committee/department have all increased. The number of individuals involved in research per institution has approximately doubled since 1986, and slightly less than half of responding institutions currently have a full-time position dedicated to administering research. Lack of available funds, time, and qualified personnel are the most common reasons reported for not conducting research. Zoo Biol 17:167–180, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Survival of captive-born Ovis canadensis in North American zoos

The survival rate of North American bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis, housed in several zoological gardens was analyzed. Complete herd histories, including birth and death data as well as causes of mortality, were collected from seven institutions. Lambs were divided into inbred and noninbred animals, with lambs being considered inbred if they had an inbreeding coefficient greater than zero. The rate of survival of inbred and noninbred lambs was compared using “survival equalling one year” and “survival equalling six months.” Another analysis compared the survival rate of male and female inbred lambs and male and female noninbred lambs. Age at death was also compared in inbred and noninbred lambs. The analysis of the data for the seven collections, located in various geographic areas and housing various subspecies, indicates that inbreeding depression is a mortality factor in the captive management of North American bighorn sheep. Therefore, long-term survival of captive or isolated wild populations will depend on maintaining genetic diversity within the herds through careful selection of breeding stock in captive populations and introduction of nonrelated animals into isolated wild populations.     

Comparison of diets fed to southeast Asian colobines in North American and European zoos,with emphasis on temperate browse composition

In May and June 1994 a survey of diets fed to captive southeast Asian colobines in European (n = 12) and North American (n = 9) zoos was conducted. Most diets were very complex, comprising an average of 25 ingredients; 149 different foods were listed in responses. Comparison of diets fed showed that European zoos feed a greater variety of fruits and vegetables, and fewer browse plants, than North American zoos. No standardized diet recommendations, based on ingredient or nutrient composition, are currently available for colobines in captivity. Foods eaten by these primates in nature appear to contain higher amounts of fiber and lower protein and soluble carbohydrates than current zoo diets. Temperate browse plants (n = 11 spp.; leaves plus twigs) sampled in New York in summer and autumn contained higher fiber and lower protein levels than diets fed in this survey, and may approximate the nutrient content of food items selected by free-ranging colobines. Fast-growing roses grown in greenhouses, fed primarily in Europe, contained substantially less fiber and higher protein concentrations than other browses offered, and may not be an appropriate substitute for native foods. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Behavior research in zoos: Past,present, and future

This paper reviews the historical emphases in zoo behavioral research and the contribution of these studies to animal management and to advancement in the behavioral sciences. Some examples are provided from research conducted at the National Zoological Park and elsewhere. The potential for doing behavior studies of excellence in zoos and aquariums has become more complicated in recent years by 1) changes in the aims and objectives of modern zoological parks, especially the increasing emphasis on conservation, 2) changes in focus in the science of animal behavior itself, and 3) the tendency of trained behaviorists to assume positions as curators and directors without time for research. These issues represent challenges to be overcome so that zoos can continue to be important sites for the study of animal behavior and contribute to the science of animal management and conservation, as well as the advancement of theory in biology. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Reproductive status of endemic felid species in Latin American zoos and implications for ex situ conservation

Reproductive evaluations were conducted on 185 male cats representing eight endemic Latin American species that were maintained in 44 zoos and private facilities in 12 Latin American countries. Reproductive assessments (testicular measures, ejaculate quality, and blood testosterone/cortisol concentration) were used to establish normative values for large‐ and small‐sized cats in Latin American collections. Data also were analyzed using multiple regression to study the impact of proven breeder status, diet, and various animal housing combinations. Most felids (>95%) in the survey were of wild‐born origin, and <20% had produced offspring in captivity. Larger felids had bigger testes and produced more semen, but tended to produce low‐sperm‐density ejaculates. The ejaculates of small felids were more sperm‐concentrated, but contained fewer total spermatozoa. Sperm motility was unrelated to species size, and certain species (puma, margay, tigrina, and jaguarundi) consistently produced few (<40%) normal sperm forms. Across species, >50% of males had low sperm counts (<1 million total sperm per ejaculate). Among large cats (jaguars and pumas), proven breeders had larger (P<0.05) testes, greater semen volume, and more normal sperm than nonbreeders. Males on adequate diets had higher (P<0.05) circulating cortisol. Among small‐sized felids, proven breeders had higher (P<0.05) testosterone, and males housed alone or paired with a conspecific female had more (P<0.05) total sperm per ejaculate and greater (P<0.05) seminal and testicular volumes. Fifty‐nine ejaculates (potentially representing ～100 artificial insemination (AI) or 26,000 in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures) were cryopreserved for a felid genome resource bank. In conclusion, breeding success and reproductive traits for many endemic felids in Latin American zoos appear to be suboptimal, and likely would benefit from improvements in diet and exhibitry. Technology transfer and continued training of zoo staff and scientists in Latin American countries are essential if these zoos are to achieve their tremendous conservation potential for felids and other threatened endemic species. Zoo Biol 22:421–441, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A survey of abnormal repetitive behaviors in North American river otters housed in zoos

Stereotypic behaviors, indicating poor welfare and studied in a variety of species (especially carnivores), appear related to characteristics of current and past environments. Although North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) often develop abnormal, repetitive, possibly stereotypic behaviors, no published reports describe otter housing and management or characterize how these variables relate to abnormal repetitive behavior (ARB) occurrence. The first author developed surveys to gather data on housing, individual history, management, and the prevalence of ARBs in otters housed in facilities accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Consistent with anecdotal evidence that otters are prone to ARBs, 46% of river otters in the study exhibit them. ARBs were mostly locomotor and often preceded feeding. Exhibits where otters were fed and trained housed a greater percentage of nonhuman animals with ARBs. This study supports the Tarou, Bloomsmith, and Maple (2005) report that more hands-on management is associated with higher levels of ARBs because management efforts are only for animals with ARBs. Escape motivation, breeding season, feeding cues, and ability to forage may affect ARBs in river otters and should be investigated.     

An integrative approach to environmental engineering in zoos

Zoos have shifted recently from the historical tendency to display as many species as possible to an emphasis on improved education and captive propagation. Many enlightened zoo administrations attempt to achieve these goals through creation of exhibits that mimic animals' natural physical and social environments, as extrapolated from field studies. An adjunct is the increased use of technology as a tool in environmental engineering, the term used herein to refer to the design of habitats for captive animals. Recently there has been discussion about the degree of technological control that is appropriate in zoo displays. One progressive group has proposed that natural resources and technology should only be used to enhance displays passively. Their efforts are concentrated on simulation of natural physical and social environments. Another group has suggested that technology should play an active role in the design of captive environments. They attempt to modify displays so that captive animals participate actively to obtain food. This paper first reviews the literature of both groups and suggests an integration of their views. The second section illustrates how both methods may be used to solve problems zoos face with animals during reproduction, development, and adulthood.     

A visit to the zoos and aquariums in Northern Japan

For their trip to the National Parks in Hokkaido the authors also included in their schedule visits to the zoos and aquariums in Northern Japan. Their tight scheduled tour started at the Aquamarine Fukushima, which was after the large tsunami rebuilt and re-opened in July 2011. They continued with a visit to the Kamo Aquarium, which is famous for its unique and large jellyfish exhibition. On Hokkaido Island they visited the smaller zoos in Kushiro and Obihiro with a good collection of native Hokkaido animal species. Included was also the Asahiyama Zoo, which is at the moment one of the most popular zoos in Japan. It is well-known for its innovative enclosures for seals and penguins. The Sapporo Maruyama Zoo and the Chitose Salmon Aquarium were the last highlights of this tour. The themes and animal collections of these different zoos and aquariums are described. The general situation for the northern zoos and aquariums is quite different compared to the institutions in the southern parts of the country and entirely to the zoos in the large city areas like Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. Here in the northern zoos and aquariums many native animal species and subspecies are kept and often successfully bred.     

Individual-level variability among trust criteria relevant to zoos and aquariums

Prior research into the conceptual underpinnings of the public's institutional trust in zoos and aquariums has suggested a range of ethical dimensions that set these types of cultural institutions apart from others in the museum sector. As the recognized holders, care-takers, and nurturers of wild animals, zoos and aquariums are sustained at least in part by the public's perception that these activities are legitimate pursuits and essential to the long-term conservation of the natural world. This paper builds on recent research that identified the ethical dimensions of trust in zoos and aquariums and assessed their distribution among the U.S. public by analyzing survey responses with respect to the importance of trust criteria. We hypothesized that distinct clusters of individuals, as defined by their response to trust criteria items, would emerge and that these clusters would prioritize different dimensions in their trust of zoos and aquariums. Using k-means clustering, we identified four relevant clusters of individuals on seven dimensions of institutional trust in zoos and aquariums. Based on these clusters, we suggest strategies for addressing what may be necessary for zoos and aquariums to claim authority as agents promoting conservation behaviors in society.