Development of genetic diversity,differentiation and structure over 500 years in four ponderosa pine populations

Population history plays an important role in shaping contemporary levels of genetic variation and geographic structure. This is especially true in small, isolated range‐margin populations, where effects of inbreeding, genetic drift and gene flow may be more pronounced than in large continuous populations. Effects of landscape fragmentation and isolation distance may have implications for persistence of range‐margin populations if they are demographic sinks. We studied four small, disjunct populations of ponderosa pine over a 500‐year period. We coupled demographic data obtained through dendroecological methods with microsatellite data to discern how and when contemporary levels of allelic diversity, among and within‐population levels of differentiation, and geographic structure, arose. Alleles accumulated rapidly following initial colonization, demonstrating proportionally high levels of gene flow into the populations. At population sizes of approximately 100 individuals, allele accumulation saturated. Levels of genetic differentiation among populations (F_ST and Jost's D_est) and diversity within populations (F_IS) remained stable through time. There was no evidence of geographic genetic structure at any time in the populations' history. Proportionally, high gene flow in the early stages of population growth resulted in rapid accumulation of alleles and quickly created relatively homogenous genetic patterns among populations. Our study demonstrates that contemporary levels of genetic diversity were formed quickly and early in population development. How contemporary genetic diversity accumulates over time is a key facet of understanding population growth and development. This is especially relevant given the extent and speed at which species ranges are predicted to shift in the coming century.     

Genetic differentiation among European samples of the arctic‐alpine leaf beetle,Chrysomela lapponica

Genetic differentiation within and among isolated populations of the arctic‐alpine leaf beetle, Chrysomela lapponica L. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), specialized on either Salix L. (Salicaceae) or Betula L. (Betulaceae) species, was assessed by F‐statistics analysis at seven allozyme loci. Beetles were collected on Salix spp. in lowland Finland (four samples), at mid elevation in the Black Forest in Germany (450 m) and the Massif Central in France (two samples, 930–1 300 m), and at high elevation in the French Alps (2 300 m). Beetles sampled in the Czech Republic (650 m) fed on Betula pubescens Ehrh. Larvae feeding on Salix spp. secreted host‐derived salicylaldehyde as major toxin; those feeding on B. pubescens secreted isobutyrates and 2‐methylbutyrates of mixed plant–insect origin. In all samples, a heterozygote deficit was observed (0.120<F_IS<0.568), in particular in populations collected at mid or high elevation (F_IS>0.4). The estimated mean level of genetic differentiation among all populations was high (F_ST = 0.276). Differentiation was highly variable between pairs of populations (F_ST = 0.093–0.455, all significant) without any correlation with geographic distance. The sample collected in the Czech Republic, from the only population on B. pubescens, was not the most divergent.     

Conservation genetics of the annual hemiparasitic plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Melampyrum sylvaticum</Emphasis> (Orobanchaceae) in the UK and Scandinavia

Melampyrum sylvaticum is an endangered annual hemiparasitic plant that is found in only 19 small and isolated populations in the United Kingdom (UK). To evaluate the genetic consequences of this patchy distribution we compared levels of diversity, inbreeding and differentiation from ten populations from the UK with eight relatively large populations from Sweden and Norway where the species is more continuously distributed. We demonstrate that in both the UK and Scandinavia, the species is highly inbreeding (global F _IS = 0.899). Levels of population differentiation were high (F’_ST = 0.892) and significantly higher amongst UK populations (F’_ST = 0.949) than Scandinavian populations (F’_ST = 0.762; P < 0.01). The isolated populations in the UK have, on average, lower genetic diversity (allelic richness, proportion of loci that are polymorphic, gene diversity) than Scandinavian populations, and this diversity difference is associated with the smaller census size and population area of UK populations. From a conservation perspective, the naturally inbreeding nature of the species may buffer the species against immediate effects of inbreeding depression, but the markedly lower levels of genetic diversity in UK populations may represent a genetic constraint to evolutionary change. In addition, the high levels of population differentiation suggest that gene flow among populations will not be effective at replenishing lost variation. We thus recommend supporting in situ conservation management with ex situ populations and human-mediated seed dispersal among selected populations in the UK.     

REDUCED GENETIC DIVERSITY AND INCREASED POPULATION DIFFERENTIATION IN PERIPHERAL AND OVERHARVESTED POPULATIONS OF GIGARTINA SKOTTSBERGII (RHODOPHYTA,GIGARTINALES) IN SOUTHERN CHILE1

This study assesses two hypotheses on the genetic diversity of populations of Gigartina skottsbergii Setchell et Gardner (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) at the border of the species distribution: 1) peripheral populations display a reduced genetic diversity compared with central populations, and 2) genetic differentiation is higher among peripheral than among central populations. Two peripheral and four central populations were sampled along the Chilean coast and 113 haploid individuals were analyzed using 17 random amplification of polymorphic DNA loci. The genetic diversity was estimated by allele diversity (H_e), allele richness (Â), and the mean pair‐wise differences among multilocus genotypes. All three estimates consistently and significantly indicated a lower genetic diversity within the peripheral than within the central populations. Genetic differentiation between the two peripheral populations was stronger (F_ST=0.35) than between central populations at similar spatial scales (F_ST ranging from 0 to 0.25). In addition, it appeared from the distribution of pair‐wise differences that peripheral populations are in demographic expansion after a recent bottleneck. The results are discussed in the specific context of potential overharvesting of these wild populations.     

Population genetic structure of the gynodioecious Thymus vulgaris L. (Labiatae) in southern France

In a self-compatible gynodioecious species, the abundance of female plants (which are obligate outcrossers) relative to hermaphrodites (which may self and outcross) may be a critical factor influencing genetic diversity and population structure. In the gynodioecious Thymus vulgaris L., female frequency varies from 5 to 95%, providing a suitable model to examine this issue. In this study, we use allozyme markers to (1) evaluate the relationship between female frequency, genetic diversity and population structure, (2) determine whether females and hermaphrodites vary in heterozygote deficiency and (3) examine whether other factors such as plant density are related to heterozygote deficiency. Twenty three natural populations, with female frequencies ranging from 11 to 92%, were sampled in and around the St-Martin-de-Londres basin in southern France. Based on four polymorphic allozyme loci, we found no significant correlation between female frequency and heterozygote deficiency. A significant (P < 0.05) F_IS value over loci and over populations of 0.11 was detected. The F_IS value per population showed a significant heterozygote deficiency in 11 of the 23 populations. However, no significant difference between female and hermaphrodite F_IS values was found. A significant heterozygote deficiency only occurred in populations of intermediate density. There was little differentiation among populations (F_ST = 0.038) nor among subpopulations within each population. The significant F_IS values are thus mostly due to inbreeding effects. The lack of a correlation between F_IS values and female frequency may be due to outcrossing in hermaphrodites and/or restoration of male fertility which may occur to a greater extent at low female frequency. The similarity of female and hermaphrodite F_IS values indicates that females may occasion high levels of biparental inbreeding.     

Drift happens: Molecular genetic diversity and differentiation among populations of jewelweed (Impatiens capensis Meerb.) reflect fragmentation of floodplain forests

Landscape features often shape patterns of gene flow and genetic differentiation in plant species. Populations that are small and isolated enough also become subject to genetic drift. We examined patterns of gene flow and differentiation among 12 floodplain populations of the selfing annual jewelweed (Impatiens capensis Meerb.) nested within four river systems and two major watersheds in Wisconsin, USA. Floodplain forests and marshes provide a model system for assessing the effects of habitat fragmentation within agricultural/urban landscapes and for testing whether rivers act to genetically connect dispersed populations. We generated a panel of 12,856 single nucleotide polymorphisms and assessed genetic diversity, differentiation, gene flow, and drift. Clustering methods revealed strong population genetic structure with limited admixture and highly differentiated populations (mean multilocus F_ST = 0.32, F_ST’ = 0.33). No signals of isolation by geographic distance or environment emerged, but alleles may flow along rivers given that genetic differentiation increased with river distance. Differentiation also increased in populations with fewer private alleles (R² = 0.51) and higher local inbreeding (R² = 0.22). Populations varied greatly in levels of local inbreeding (F_IS = 0.2–0.9) and F_IS increased in more isolated populations. These results suggest that genetic drift dominates other forces in structuring these Impatiens populations. In rapidly changing environments, species must migrate or genetically adapt. Habitat fragmentation limits both processes, potentially compromising the ability of species to persist in fragmented landscapes.     

GENETIC FINGERPRINT-INFERRED POPULATION SUBDIVISION AND SPATIAL GENETIC TESTS FOR ISOLATION BY DISTANCE AND ADAPTATION IN THE COASTAL PLANT LIMONIUM CAROLINIANUM

This paper examines two wild populations of Limonium carolinianum for population genetic subdivision and spatial patterns of genetic variation in an attempt to simultaneously test for both the action of local adaptation to tidal gradients and isolation by distance (IBD). A VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) genetic “fingerprinting” marker was used to infer relatedness among mapped plants in two populations. Band sharing within and between populations estimated F'_ST, an approximate measure of F_ST. Regression models were used to analyze the relationship between band sharing and spatial separation in tidal elevation and horizontal distance, as well as the relationship of fecundity differences with band sharing and spatial distance. Populations differed in band size frequency distributions and mean number of bands per profile and, therefore, likely differed in effective population size. F'_ST was estimated at 0.0678 and was significantly greater than F'_ST among randomly constructed subpopulations. Band sharing decreased 0.13% per meter in one population but showed no significant relation to distance in the other. In the population with significant IBD band sharing increased with increasingly different tidal elevation, contrary to an adaptive hypothesis, possibly due to directional gene flow or drift. Deme sizes were approximately 25 meters and greater than 100 meters, spanning larger areas than the entire environmental gradient. Fecundity differences were not associated with spatial parameters or band sharing. Unequal potential maternal fecundity measured as variance in number of seeds per maternal family was a significant source of genetic sampling variance. The VNTR marker employed is capable of detecting adaptation as identity by descent in ecological time and is an appropriate method for estimating the net evolutionary fate of polygenic traits. The results show that the net balance between selection along an environmental gradient and the effects of IBD and unequal maternal fecundity favor genetic differentiation by random processes in populations of Limonium.     

Genetic diversity and population differentiation in the yellow drum Nibea albiflora along the coast of the China Sea

Nibea albiflora (yellow drum) is an important seafood fish species in East Asia. We explored the population genetic variation of N. albiflora along the coastal waters of the China Sea using microsatellite markers to facilitate a selective breeding programme that is undertaken in China. A total of 256 alleles were detected at 12 loci in four wild populations. A high level of genetic diversity was observed with the mean number of alleles and the observed and expected heterozygosity in each population ranging from 7.917 to 14.083, 0.701 to 0.764 and 0.765 to 0.841, respectively. Pairwise fixation index (F_ST) analysis indicated significant but weak genetic differentiation among populations from four localities (F_ST?=?0.030, P?<?0.01), which was also confirmed by analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA). Significant genetic differentiation was detected between Ningde and the other populations (F_ST?=?0.047–0.056, P?<?0.01). Structure analysis suggested that N. albiflora within the examined range might be composed of two stocks. The data of the present study revealed high genetic diversity and low genetic differentiation among the N. albiflora populations along the coast of the China Sea. This baseline information could be valuable for future selective breeding programmes of N. albiflora.     

Inferring demographic processes from the genetic structure of a metapopulation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Boltonia decurrens</Emphasis>(Asteraceae)

Boltonia decurrens(Asteraceae), a federally listed, threatened floodplain species, requires regular flooding for suitable habitat and seed dispersal. Flood suppression and habitat destruction have resulted in fewer than 25 populations remaining throughout its 400 km range. Because individual populations are widely interspaced (>10 km) and subject to frequent extinction and colonization, seed dispersal along the river, not pollen flow, is likely the primary determinant of population genetic structure. We used neutral genetic markers (isozymes) assayed for fourteen populations to determine which demographic processes contribute to the genetic structure of B. decurrens. Significant genetic differentiation was detected among populations (F _ST=0.098, P< 0.05) but not among regions (F _RT=0.013, P> 0.05), suggesting that long-distance dispersal events occur and involve seed from a small number of populations. Correspondingly, we found no evidence of isolation by distance, and admixture analyses indicate that colonization events involve seed from 3 to 5 source populations. Individual populations exhibited high levels of fixation (mean F _IS=0.192, P< 0.05), yet mean population outcrossing rates were high (t _m=0.87–0.95) and spatial autocorrelation analyses revealed no fine-scale within population structure, indicating that inbreeding alone cannot explain the observed fixation. Rather, genetic bottlenecks, detected for 12 of 14 populations, and admixture at population founding may be important sources of fixation. These observations are consistent with a metapopulation model and confirm the importance of regular flooding events, capable of producing suitable habitat and dispersing seed long distances, to the long-term persistence of B. decurrens.     

Genetic diversity of insular natural populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Festuca pratensis</Emphasis> Huds.: RAPD analysis

In natural populations of Festuca pratensis Huds. from the islands of Onega Lake, the level of genetic diversity was evaluated. In three populations variability of 64 RAPD loci was tested. The level of genetic diversity (P _95% = 30.2; H _exp = 0.093) was low for a cross-pollinating plant species. Furthermore, genetic similarity between the plants from insular populations was found to be high (I _N = 0.887). It was demonstrated that genetic variation among the population accounted for at most 5.3% of total genetic diversity, which, however, was higher than the F _ST values for continental populations (F _ST = 0.022). It was suggested that specific features of the genetic structure of insular population, i.e., low gene diversity within the populations along with high differentiation among the populations, were caused by the gene flow attenuation, as a result of isolation, and intensification of inbreeding. These features had negative effect on total population adaptation.     

Genetic Diversity and Structure of Two Prominent Zebu Cattle Breeds Adapted to the Arid Region of India Inferred from Microsatellite Polymorphism

This study aims to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of two major zebu dairy breeds (Tharparkar and Rathi) adapted to the arid region of Rajasthan state of India. Various variability estimates indicate the existence of sufficient within-breed genetic diversity. Mean estimates of F-statistics are significantly different from zero: F _IS = 0.112 ± 0.029, F _IT = 0.169 ± 0.033, F _ST = 0.065 ± 0.017. The overall positive value of F _IS (0.112) and an F _IT value (0.169) that is more than the F _ST (0.065) indicate departure from random mating. The drift-based estimates reflect a moderate yet significant level of breed differentiation between the Tharparkar and Rathi breeds. The evaluation of an exact test, showing that allele frequencies across all the loci differed significantly, supports the population differentiation. This is paralleled by the outcome of neighbor-joining clustering based on allele-sharing distance measures. The allocation of a high percentage of individuals (95.7%) to their population of origin and correspondence analysis further substantiates the existence of a cohesive genetic structure in both the breeds.     

Genetic structure of refugial populations of the temperate plant Shortia rotundifolia (Diapensiaceae) on a subtropical island

Continental island systems harbour relict biota and populations that might have migrated during glacial periods due to the formation of landbridges. Here we analysed the genetic structure of relict populations of the temperate plant Shortia rotundifolia on the subtropical island of Iriomotejima, Japan. This plant, which inhabits riparian environments, is designated “near threatened”. Only five extant populations have been found on the island. Our analyses of 10 nuclear microsatellite loci detected genetic diversity of H _E = 0.488 and H _O = 0.358 for all populations of S. rotundifolia on the island. A high inbreeding coefficient for all populations together (F _IS = 0.316) and each population separately (F _IS = 0.258–0.497) might be attributable to crossing among closely related descendants within a population, an idea that is supported by the relatedness coefficient. These results and an examination of the populations’ demographic histories suggest that the extant populations on Iriomotejima have not experienced a recent population bottleneck. The five extant populations were genetically differentiated (F _ST = 0.283; P < 0.001), suggesting low seed dispersal by gravity and/or low pollen flow via pollinators in the riparian environment. In addition, population differentiation was not related to genetic distance, implying that at one time, ancestral populations might have been distributed over a wider area of the island. However, population fragmentation and range contraction might have occurred at random during the postglacial period.     

Genetic diversity and structure of wild Tunisian Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffm. et Link. (Lamiaceae) assessed using isozyme markers

The genetic diversity and population structure of 25 natural populations of Thymus capitatus, from five ecological areas, were analysed using eight isozymes. For all populations, 11 polymorphic loci were detected, and several of them showed rare alleles. A high genetic diversity within populations (A_p = 1.82; P = 62.88%; H_o = 0.116) and an excess of heterozygosity were observed. A high level of inbreeding within populations was observed (F_IS = 0.471). High differentiation and low gene flow (N_m = 0.821) were detected among populations (F_ST = 0.219). The genetic variation within and among ecological groups varied according to the bioclimate. Population structuration depends on geographic distance between sites rather than on bioclimate (Mantel’s test; r = 0.251; P = 0.004). Nei’s genetic distances (D) values calculated between pairs of populations were globally low with a mean of 0.047. The unweighted pairwise groups method using arithmetic average dendrogram showed fourth sub‐clusters. Population groupings occur with evident relationship to geographic location. The substantial differentiation and the high genetic similarities between populations indicate that populations have been recently isolated as a result of anthropic pressure. In situ conservation must first focus on populations with a high level of genetic diversity and rare alleles. Ex situ preservation should be elaborated by collecting seeds within populations that showed a high level of genetic diversity in each ecological group.     

Genetic variability and individual assignment of Chinese indigenous sheep populations (Ovis aries) using microsatellites

The purpose of this study was to assess the genetic characteristics of six breeds of Chinese local sheep using 19 microsatellite loci and to effectively validate statistical methods for individual assignment based on informative microsatellites. All the six breeds deviated from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium expectations, while the majority of markers complied. The polymorphism information content (PIC) of overall loci for the six populations ranged from 0.283 (SRCRSP5) to 0.852 (OarVH72). Tibetan sheep were the most diverse population with the highest mean allelic richness (6.895), while Ujmuqin (UQ) harboured the lowest allelic richness (6.000). The F‐statistics for the six populations were F_IS = ?0.172, F_IT = ?0.082 and F_ST = 0.077, respectively. Furthermore, the pair‐wise F_IS revealed a moderate genetic differentiation among populations (P < 0.01), indicating that all breeds can be considered genetically independent entities. The lowest genetic differentiation was between Tengchong (TC) and UQ (F_ST = 0.041), and the highest one was between TC and Fat‐tailed Han (F_ST = 0.111). In comparing the three statistical models, we note that the seven microsatellite loci (MAF65, OarJMP58, SRCRSP9, MCM140, OarAE129, BM8125 and SRCRSP5) commonly used for individual assignment will ensure a powerful detection of individual origin, with accuracy up to 91.87%, when the likelihood‐based method is used. Overall, these findings shed light onto the genetic characteristics of Chinese indigenous sheep and offer a set of microsatellite loci that is simple, economic and highly informative for individual assignment of Chinese sheep.     

Patterns of Genetic Diversity in Platanthera bifolia (Orchidaceae) with Respect to Life History Traits and Recent Range Expansion

For evolutionary and ecological analyses, genetic diversity at different scales needs to be studied in terms of biological properties, habitat, population size and population history. We surveyed Platanthera bifolia populations from six regions in northeastern Poland to determine the impact of the mating system and population history on genetic diversity. Based on variation at allozyme markers, genetic variation was relatively moderate (P?=?22.3%, A?=?1.48, H _O?=?0.083, F _IS?=??0.015) and similar to other Platanthera species. These parameters varied between populations (P?=?13.3%–26.6%, A?=?1.26–1.66, H _O?=?0.055–0.111, F _IS?=??0.262–0.147). The genetic diversity patterns were shaped by different proportions of facilitated selfing and/or outcrossing, resulting in positive and negative F _IS values, respectively. No relationship between inbreeding coefficient and population size, however, and no impact of apomixis on the level of genetic diversity of P. bifolia were found. The relatively low level of genetic differentiation among the investigated regions (F _CT?=?0.002, P?>?0.05) and among populations (F _ST?=?0.048, P?<?0.001), and the lack of a significant relationship between genetic and geographical distance, are discussed in the context of possible scenaria of postglacial expansion.     

Mitochondrial phylogeography and population history of finless porpoises in Sino‐Japanese waters

Phylogeographical patterns of intraspecific variation can provide insights into the population‐level processes responsible for speciation and yield information useful for conservation purposes. In the present study, three hundred and forty‐five base pairs of the mitochondrial DNA control region were sequenced to analyse the genetic diversity, population structure and history, and phylogeography of finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) in Chinese and Japanese waters of the North Pacific. Nucleotide and haplotype diversities were 0.44% and 0.79 ± 0.01 for Chinese and Japanese waters, respectively, but varied significantly among populations. Analysis of molecular variance showed a high level of genetic structure between populations (Φ_ST = 0.61, P < 0.001; F_ST = 0.52, P < 0.001). Eleven of 18 haplotypes were restricted to a single population, common haplotypes were found in two to four populations, but no haplotype was found throughout Sino‐Japanese waters, suggesting multiple colonization events followed by limited gene flow. The inferred age of demographic expansion was from the end stage of the last ice age to the Holocene. No obvious phylogeographical pattern was revealed, including between saline and fresh water populations. A low level of genetic diversity for each population and high among‐population differentiation in haplotype frequency were revealed, which suggest a role for random genetic drift, recent demographic bottlenecks, and reduced or limited gene flow in these populations. Some conservation considerations, with special reference to the unique Yangtze population, are discussed. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 95 , 193–204.     

Genetic diversity in Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. majalis populations (Orchidaceae) of northern Poland

We analysed 16 populations of Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. majalis from northern Poland, simultaneously utilizing both morphological and molecular data. Genetic differentiation was examined using five microsatellite loci, and morphological variation was assessed for 23 characters. At the species level, our results showed a moderate level of genetic diversity (A = 6.00; A_e = 1.86; H_o = 0.387; F_IS = 0.139) which varied between the studied populations (A = 2.60–4.20; A_e = 1.68–2.39; H_o = 0.270–0.523; F_IS = ?0.064–0.355). A significant excess of homozygotes was detected in five population, while excess of heterozygotes was observed in four populations, but the latter values were statistically insignificant. Moderate, but clear between population genetic differentiation was found (F_ST = 0.101; p < 0.001). Considering pairwise‐F_ST and number of migrants among populations, we recognized three population groups (I, II, III), where the first could be further divided into two subgroups (Ia, Ib). These three groups differed with respect to gene flow values (N_m = 0.39–1.12). The highest number of migrants per generation was noticed among populations of subgroup Ia (8.58), indicative of a central panmictic population with free gene flow surrounded by peripatric local populations (Ib) with more limited gene flow. Geographic isolation, habitat fragmentation and limited seed dispersal are inferred to have caused limitations to gene flow among the three indicated population groups. There was a significant correlation between the morphological and genetic distance matrices. A weak but significant pattern of isolation by distance was also observed (r = 0.351; p < 0.05).     

Population Genetic Structure of Pacific White Shrimp (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Litopenaeus vannamei</Emphasis>) from Mexico to Panama: Microsatellite DNA Variation

Genetic variation and population structure of wild white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) from 4 geographic locations from Mexico to Panama were investigated using 5 microsatellite DNA loci. The genetic diversity between populations was indicated by the mean number of alleles per locus and mean observed heterozygosity, which ranged from 7.4 to 8.6 and from 0.241 to 0.388, respectively. Significant departures from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were found at most locations at each locus, with the exception Guatemala at Pvan0013, and were caused by high heterozygote deficiencies. Genetic differences between localities were detected by pairwise comparison based on allelic and genotypic frequencies, with the exception of locus Pvan1003. Significant pairwise F _ST values between locations and total F _ST showed that the white shrimp population is structured into subpopulations. However, population differentiation does not follow an isolation-by-distance model. Knowledge of the genetic diversity and structure of L.vannamei populations will be of interest for aquaculture and fisheries management to utilize and preserve aquatic biodiversity.     

Spatial structure of genetic variation and primary succession in the pioneer tree species Antirhea borbonica on La Réunion

In habitats where colonization and extinction are recurrent, the distribution of gene frequencies among patches of suitable habitat may reflect the age structure of different populations. In this study, we quantify population genetic structure for a pioneer tree species, Antirhea borbonica, in a chrono-sequence of primary succession on the lava flows of the Piton de La Fournaise volcano (La Réunion). Using microsatellite loci and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers, we quantified genetic variation within and among populations for early- and late-succession populations in a landscape where extinction and recolonization are recurrent (the ‘Grand Brûlé’) and for late-succession populations in a more stable landscape. This study produced three main results. First, we detected no evidence that founder events increase genetic differentiation among colonizing populations; F_ST values among early- and among late-succession populations were similar. Second, we found no evidence for isolation by distance; genetic distance was not correlated with spatial distance within and among populations. Third, F_IS values are consistently high in all populations, despite the fact that A. borbonica populations are functionally close to dioecy and thus expected to have an outcrossing mating system. Multiple colonization events from different sources may limit differentiation among young populations and spatial isolation may enhance differentiation among late-succession populations. Ecological processes acting during colonization may create the conditions for spatial aggregation within pioneer populations, and thus contribute to the high F_IS values.     

Relationships between bed age,bed size,and genetic structure in Chesapeake Bay (Virginia,USA) eelgrass (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Zostera marina</Emphasis> L.)

Genetic structure and diversity can reveal the demographic and selective forces to which populations have been exposed, elucidate genetic connections among populations, and inform conservation strategies. Beds of the clonal marine angiosperm Zostera marinaL. (eelgrass) in Chesapeake Bay (Virginia, USA) display significant morphological and genetic variation; abundance has fluctuated widely in recent decades, and eelgrass conservation is a major concern, raising questions about how genetic diversity is distributed and structured within this metapopulation. This study examined the influence of bed age (<65years versus<6years) and size (>100ha versus<10ha) on morphological and genetic (allozyme) structure and diversity within Chesapeake Bay eelgrass beds. Although both morphology and genetic diversity varied significantly among individual beds (F _ST=0.198), neither varied consistently with bed age or size. The Chesapeake eelgrass beds studied were significantly inbred (mean F _IS=0.680 over all beds), with inbreeding in old, small beds significantly lower than in other bed types. Genetic and geographic distances within and among beds were uncorrelated, providing no clear evidence of isolation by distance at the scale of 10's of km. These results suggest that local environmental conditions have a greater influence on plant morphology than do bed age or size. They support the hypotheses that eelgrass beds are established by multiple founder genotypes but experience little gene flow thereafter, and that beds are maintained with little loss of genetic diversity for up to 65 years. Since phenotypic and genotypic variation is partitioned among beds of multiple ages and sizes, eelgrass conservation efforts should maximize preservation of diversity by minimizing losses of all beds.