金属硫蛋白及其生物学功能

金属硫蛋白(metallothionein, MT) 是一类富含半胱氨酸的低分子质量蛋白质,已鉴定4种亚型：MT-1、MT-2、MT-3和MT-4,基于各亚型功能的相对异质性而使MT呈现其生物学作用的多样性。金属硫蛋白通过与金属离子结合而参与基因表达调控和机体的重金属解毒过程;金属硫蛋白通过抑制多种氧化应激途径而保护细胞免受损伤;金属硫蛋白通过参与细胞的增殖、分化和凋亡的调节而影响肿瘤及其他重大疾病的发生发展。本文在金属硫蛋白的结构和分类的基础上综述其生物学作用及其相关机制。     

Zn MT作为内源性药物的研究

金属硫蛋白(Metallo thionein,MT)分子量约6500Da,含60个氨基酸残基,其中有20个半胱氨酸,每分子含七个二价金属离子,是迄今发现对具有d~(10)结构的金属离子Zn(II),Cd(II),Cu(I)亲和力最高的一种生物活性物质。其结构的保守性、在生物界的普遍存在性以及高度的可诱导性,都预示了MT在与金属有关的细胞生物学过程中发挥着重要的作用。从发现MT     

LuxR家族调控蛋白的结构及功能

LuxR家族调控蛋白是一类在革兰氏阴性细菌群体感应中起重要作用的调控蛋白,它们参与由酰基高丝氨酸内酯介导的多种生物学过程,调控细菌生物发光、质粒转移、生物膜形成以及多种胞外酶、毒力因子和次生代谢产物的合成。LuxR家族蛋白的研究在医学、环境监测、生物防治和微生物发酵等方面具有巨大的应用潜力。该文综述了LuxR家族调控蛋白近期的研究进展、存在问题及应用前景。     

亲环蛋白在病毒感染中的作用

亲环蛋白家族是一类具有肽酰-脯氨酰顺反异构酶活性的蛋白.亲环蛋白不仅具有帮助蛋白质组装和折叠、参与调节细胞内信号转导通路等多种生物学功能,还在病毒感染及病毒的复制周期中起到重要作用.本文就亲环蛋白在病毒感染过程中的具体分子机制进行综述,旨在更深入的阐明病毒的感染过程并为寻找潜在的抗病毒药物靶标提供新的理论依据及思路.     

NonO蛋白

NonO蛋白能与DNA、RNA以及多种蛋白质相互作用,参与多种生物学事件：DNA的损伤修复、pre．mRNA的剪接、转录调控、核RNA滞留和cAMP调节途径等,并且该蛋白与恶性黑色素瘤、乳突状’肾细胞癌、前列腺癌以及结肠癌等多种癌症的发生密切相关,因此对该蛋白的研究具有非常重要的生物学意义。本文对NonO蛋白的结构、功能及其与癌症的关系等方面的研究现状进行简要的概述。     

前体蛋白转化酶家族的重要成员之一：弗林蛋白酶

弗林蛋白酶(Furin)是前体蛋白转化酶家族的重要成员之一,广泛存在于各种组织和细胞系中。Furin经过两次自剪切去掉前肽后具有生理活性,能够识别特定的氨基酸序列并在TGN中对多种前体蛋白进行加工。Furin的作用底物不仅包括神经肽和肽类激素,还包括许多生长因子、受体、血浆蛋白酶、基质金属蛋白酶及细菌外毒素等,具有重要的生物学功能。     

S100B蛋白在神经系统疾病中的临床意义及进展

S100B蛋白是主要由神经胶质细胞分泌的一种钙结合蛋白,在生理浓度下,S100B蛋白具有旁分泌或自分泌神经营养作用,高浓度时则具有神经毒害作用。脑脊液、血液、尿液、唾液、羊水等体液中S100B蛋白水平的升高被认为是多种疾病的生物学指标,如急性脑损伤、围产期脑损伤、脑肿瘤、神经系统炎症性或退行性疾病,精神疾病等。S100B蛋白不仅仅是一种生物学指标,也可作为疾病治疗的靶向目标。目前存在的主要问题是,S100B蛋白主要由受损细胞渗漏,还是病理生理条件下分泌的S100B蛋白造成了细胞损伤。本文就S100B蛋白在神经科疾病中的诊断、治疗及新进展做一综述,并提出进一步研究的设想。     

类甜蛋白的结构特征以及功能研究进展

类甜蛋白是一种具有多种生物学活性及重要功能的植物防御蛋白,属于病程相关蛋白。近年来关于类甜蛋白具有抗真菌活性的研究较多。类甜蛋白具有葡聚糖酶活性,能结合并降解真菌细胞壁的组成成分—β-1,3葡聚糖酶。在三维晶体结构中类甜蛋白表面的一个酸性“V”字形裂缝对其抗真菌活性起着至关重要的作用。对类甜蛋白结构与功能的关系,不同植物中类甜蛋白的生物学特性,以及国内外基因工程中类甜蛋白基因的应用研究进展进行了综述。     

衣原体pORF5质粒编码蛋白致病机制的研究进展

衣原体(Chlamydia)是一类具有独特的两相发育周期、专性细胞内寄生的革兰阴性菌,能引起人类多种疾病。pORF5是衣原体隐蔽性质粒编码的分泌性效应蛋白。近年来研究证实,pORF5质粒编码蛋白是衣原体重要的毒力蛋白,与衣原体致病密切相关。现就衣原体pORF5质粒编码蛋白的生物学特性、致炎性作用、抗凋亡作用及促自噬作用作一概述。     

转小鼠金属硫蛋白-Ⅰ基因聚球藻7002的营养需求

金属硫蛋白(Metallothionein,MT)是一类低分子量、富含半胱氨酸的小分子蛋白。自1957年被发现以来,因其具有多种复杂多样的生理活性和功能,而受到广泛关注。研究表明,金属硫蛋白在生物体内,不仅参与必需金       

Diabetes, metallothionein, and zinc interactions: a review

Epidemiological evidence, associating diabetes with zinc (Zn) deficiencies, has resulted in numerous research studies describing the effects of Zn and associated metallothionein (MT), on reducing diabetic complications associated with oxidative stress. MT has been found to have a profound effect on the reduction of oxidative stress induced by the diabetic condition. Over expression of MT in various metabolic organs has also been shown to reduce hyperglycaemia-induced oxidative stress, organ specific diabetic complications, and DNA damage in diabetic experimental animals, which have been further substantiated by the results from MT-knockout mice. Additionally, supplementation with Zn has been shown to induce in vivo MT synthesis in experimental animals and to reduce diabetes related complications in both humans and animal models. Although the results are promising, some caution regarding this topic is however necessary, due to the fact that the majority of the studies done have been animal based. Hence more human intervention trials are needed regarding the positive effects of MT and Zn before firm conclusions can be made regarding their use in the treatment of diabetes.     

Channa punctata brain metallothionein is a potent scavenger of superoxide radicals and prevents hydroxyl radical-induced in vitro DNA damage

Mammalian brain metallothioneins (MTs) have been shown to scavenge free radicals. However, a similar role for fish brain MT has not been established yet. Previously, we have reported that MT from the liver of a freshwater fish, Channa punctata Bloch, had free-radical-scavenging activity in vitro. In this study, we report on the induction of MT in brain and other tissues of C. punctata treated with a low concentration of zinc chloride. We partially purified MT (Zn-MT)-rich fraction from the brain and studied its free-radical-scavenging and DNA damage attenuating effects. Zinc exposure showed significant MT induction in brain, gill, kidney, and liver. C. punctata brain MT efficiently scavenged superoxide radicals and also attenuated hydroxyl radical-mediated DNA damage. These findings suggest that fish brain MT has a free-radical-scavenging activity, and its expression may be regulated in response to stress and chemical exposure. C. punctata has been identified as a potent biomarker fish species. It is suggested that this fish species may be a good model for the study of MTs with regard to their regulatory and biomarker functions.     

The effects of physiologically important nonmetallic ligands in the reactivity of metallothionein towards 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid). A new method for the determination of ligand interactions with metallothionein.

The reaction of Cd5Zn2-metallothionein (MT) with 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (Nbs2) has been studied at different reagent stoichiometries, pH and temperature conditions and in the presence of several ligands. At stoichiometries of Nbs2 to MT from 0.5 to 5, the reaction followed first order kinetics. The first order rate constants obtained were independent from the concentration of Nbs2 but were linearly dependent on the concentration of MT. At higher Nbs2/MT stoichiometries, the reaction deviates from first order kinetics and the observed rate constant increases. The reactivity of MT towards Nbs2 has been probed at 4 microM concentration of both reagents where the reaction is monophasic and is characterized by a linear Arrhenius plot (Ea = 45.8 +/- 2.7 kJ.mol-1). It has been demonstrated that metal release at low pH or subtraction from MT by EDTA substantially increases the reactivity of MT towards Nbs2. At the same time, a number of nonmetallic ligands moderately accelerate the reaction of MT with Nbs2 and hyperbolic dose-response curves were obtained. The data have been interpreted with the binding of ligands to MT and following MT. Ligand binding constants were calculated as follows: ATP, K = 0.31 +/- 0.06 mM; ADP, K = 0.26 +/- 0.07 mM. Several compounds such as AMP, S-methylglutathione, and phosphate had no effect on the reaction, but Zn2+ ions showed an inhibitory effect at micromolar concentrations.     

Nucleophilic Distribution of Metallothionein in Human Tumor Cells

Metallothionein (MT), a major zinc-binding intracellular protein thiol, has been associated with cytoprotection from heavy metals, antineoplastic drugs, mutagens, and cellular oxidants. Despite its small mass (7 kDa), nuclear partitioning of MT has been observed in both normal and malignant tissues. The factors controlling MT sequestration are unknown. Thus, we examined the regulation of MT subcellular distribution in human cancer cell lines that exhibit prominent nuclear MT. The nuclear disposition of MT was unaltered during cell cycle passage in synchronized cells. MT redistributed to the cytoplasm when cells were exposed to reduced temperature. Cytoplasmic redistribution was also seen in DU-145 and HPC36M prostatic cancer cells after ATP depletion, but not in PC3-MA2 and SCC25/CP cells. Pretreatment with 10 μMCdCl₂did not significantly alter MT distribution but did render all cells sensitive to cytoplasmic redistribution after either reduced temperature or ATP depletion. Thus, nuclear retention of MT is energy requiring and this ability of MT to accumulate in subcellular compartments against its concentration gradient may be important in the capacity of MT to supply Zn or other metals to target sites within the cell.     

Apolipoprotein E genotype affects tissue metallothionein levels: studies in targeted gene replacement mice

The apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype is an important risk factor for ageing and age-related diseases. The APOE4 genotype (in contrast to APOE3) has been shown to be associated with oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. Metallothioneins (MT) exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, and MT overexpression has been shown to increase lifespan in mice. Interactions between APOE and MT, however, are largely unknown. Hence, we determined the effect of the APOE4 versus APOE3 genotype on MT levels in targeted gene replacement mice. APOE4 versus APOE3 mice exhibited significantly lower hepatic MT1 and MT2 mRNA as well as lower MT protein levels. The decrease in hepatic MT protein levels in APOE4 as compared to APOE3 mice was accompanied by lower nuclear Nrf1, a protein partly controlling MT gene expression. Cell culture experiments using hepatocytes identified allyl-isothiocyanate (AITC) as a potent MT inductor in vitro. Therefore, we supplemented APOE3 and APOE4 mice with AITC. However, AITC (15 mg/kg b.w.) could only partly correct for decreased MT1 and MT2 gene expression in APOE4 mice in vivo. Furthermore, cholesterol significantly decreased both Nrf1 and MT mRNA levels in Huh7 cells indicating that differences in MT gene expression between the two genotypes could be related to differences in hepatic cholesterol concentrations. Overall, present data suggest that the APOE genotype is an important determinant of tissue MT levels in mice and that MT gene expression may be impaired by the APOE4 genotype.     

Metallothionein as a prognostic biomarker in breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women, with a general upward trend in incidence. Basic and clinical breast cancer research has continued at a rapid pace, in the endeavor to understand the biology of the disease so as to improve management of patients. Besides traditional pathological indicators, expression of molecular markers in breast cancer has also been comprehensively investigated. This paper will focus on the prognostic utility of metallothioneins (MTs), a family of low molecular weight metal binding proteins encoded by at least 10 functional MT genes that are associated with cell proliferation in breast cancer. Evidence that MT is a potential prognostic biomarker for breast cancer is supported by many reports in the literature. Expression of the MT protein has been detected by immunohistochemistry in a significant portion of invasive ductal breast cancers. MT expression has also been well studied in association with traditional clinico-pathological parameters of breast cancers. Generally, higher MT expression in breast cancers is predictive of worse patient outcomes. The relationship of MT isoforms to histological grade, estrogen receptor (ER) status, and prognosis will also be discussed.     

MT1-MMP hemopexin domain exchange with MT4-MMP blocks enzyme maturation and trafficking to the plasma membrane in MCF7 cells

The hemopexin-like domain of membrane-type matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MT1-MMP) enables MT1-MMP to form oligomers that facilitate the activation of pro-matrix metalloproteinase-2 (pro-MMP-2) at the cell surface. To investigate the role of the MT1-MMP hemopexin domain in the trafficking of MT1-MMP to the cell surface we have examined the activity of two MT1-MT4-MMP chimaeras in which the hemopexin domain of MT1-MMP has been replaced with that of human or mouse MT4-MMP. We show that MT1-MMP bearing the hemopexin domain of MT4-MMP was incapable of activating pro-MMP-2 or degrading gelatin in cell based assays. Furthermore, cell surface biotinylation and indirect immunofluorescence show that transiently expressed MT1-MT4-MMP chimaeras failed to reach the plasma membrane and were retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. Functional activity could be restored by replacing the MT4-MMP hemopexin domain with the wild-type MT1-MMP hemopexin domain. Subsequent analysis with an antibody specifically recognising the propeptide of MT1-MMP revealed that the propeptides of the MT1-MT4-MMP chimaeras failed to undergo proper processing. It has previously been suggested that the hemopexin domain of MT4-MMP could exert a regulatory mechanism that prevents MT4-MMP from activating pro-MMP-2. In this report, we demonstrate unambiguously that MT1-MT4-MMP chimaeras do not undergo normal trafficking and are not correctly processed to their fully active forms and, as a consequence, they are unable to activate pro-MMP-2 at the cell surface.     

Membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) ubiquitination at Lys581 increases cellular invasion through type I collagen

Membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP/MMP14) is a zinc-dependent type I transmembrane metalloproteinase playing pivotal roles in the regulation of pericellular proteolysis and cellular migration. Elevated expression levels of MT1-MMP have been demonstrated to correlate with a poor prognosis in cancer. MT1-MMP has a short intracellular domain (ICD) that has been shown to play important roles in cellular migration and invasion, although these ICD-mediated mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we report that MT1-MMP is mono-ubiquitinated at its unique lysine residue (Lys(581)) within the ICD. Our data suggest that this post-translational modification is involved in MT1-MMP trafficking as well as in modulating cellular invasion through type I collagen matrices. By using an MT1-MMP Y573A mutant or the Src family inhibitor PP2, we observed that the previously described Src-dependent MT1-MMP phosphorylation is a prerequisite for ubiquitination. Taken together, these findings show for the first time an additional post-translational modification of MT1-MMP that regulates its trafficking and cellular invasion, which further emphasizes the key role of the MT1-MMP ICD.     

Oxidative stress and prostate cancer progression are elicited by membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase

Oxidative stress caused by high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been correlated with prostate cancer aggressiveness. Expression of membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP), which has been implicated in cancer invasion and metastasis, is associated with advanced prostate cancer. We show here that MT1-MMP plays a key role in eliciting oxidative stress in prostate cancer cells. Stable MT1-MMP expression in less invasive LNCaP prostate cancer cells with low endogenous MT1-MMP increased activity of ROS, whereas MT1-MMP knockdown in DU145 cells with high endogenous MT1-MMP decreased activity of ROS. Expression of MT1-MMP increased oxidative DNA damage in LNCaP and in DU145 cells, indicating that MT1-MMP-mediated induction of ROS caused oxidative stress. MT1-MMP expression promoted a more aggressive phenotype in LNCaP cells that was dependent on elaboration of ROS. Blocking ROS activity using the ROS scavenger N-acetylcysteine abrogated MT1-MMP-mediated increase in cell migration and invasion. MT1-MMP-expressing LNCaP cells displayed an enhanced ability to grow in soft agar that required increased ROS. Using cells expressing MT1-MMP mutant cDNAs, we showed that ROS activation entails cell surface MT1-MMP proteolytic activity. Induction of ROS in prostate cancer cells expressing MT1-MMP required adhesion to extracellular matrix proteins and was impeded by anti-β1 integrin antibodies. These results highlight a novel mechanism of malignant progression in prostate cancer cells that involves β1 integrin-mediated adhesion, in concert with MT1-MMP proteolytic activity, to elicit oxidative stress and induction of a more invasive phenotype.     

BEYOND SUN,SAND, AND STITCHES: ASSIGNING RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE HARMS OF MEDICAL TOURISM

Medical tourism (MT) can be conceptualized as the intentional pursuit of non‐emergency surgical interventions by patients outside their nation of residence. Despite increasing popular interest in MT, the ethical issues associated with the practice have thus far been under‐examined. MT has been associated with a range of both positive and negative effects for medical tourists' home and host countries, and for the medical tourists themselves. Absent from previous explorations of MT is a clear argument of how responsibility for the harms of this practice should be assigned. This paper addresses this gap by describing both backward looking liability and forward looking political responsibility for stakeholders in MT. We use a political responsibility model to develop a decision‐making process for individual medical tourists and conclude that more information on the effects of MT must be developed to help patients engage in ethical MT.