Cellular prion protein inhibits proapoptotic Bax conformational change in human neurons and in breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells

Prion protein (PrP) prevents Bcl-2-associated protein X (Bax)-mediated cell death, but the step at which PrP inhibits is not known. We first show that PrP is very specific for Bax and cannot prevent Bak (Bcl-2 antagonist killer 1)-, tBid-, staurosporine- or thapsigargin-mediated cell death. As Bax activation involves Bax conformational change, mitochondrial translocation, cytochrome c release and caspase activation, we investigated which of these events was inhibited by PrP. PrP inhibits Bax conformational change, cytochrome c release and cell death in human primary neurons and MCF-7 cells. Serum deprivation-induced Bax conformational change is more rapid in PrP-null cells. PrP does not prevent active caspase-mediated cell death. PrP does not colocalize with Bax in normal or apoptotic primary neurons and cannot prevent Bax-mediated cytochrome c release in a mitochondrial cell-free system. We conclude that PrP protects against Bax-mediated cell death by preventing the Bax proapoptotic conformational change that occurs initially in Bax activation.     

N‐terminal cleavage of Bax by calpain generates a potent proapoptotic 18‐kDa fragment that promotes Bcl‐2‐independent cytochrome C release and apoptotic cell death

Upon apoptosis induction, the proapoptotic protein Bax is translocated from the cytosol to mitochondria, where it promotes release of cytochrome c, a caspase‐activating protein. However, the molecular mechanisms by which Bax triggers cytochrome c release are unknown. Here we report that before the initiation of apoptotic execution by etoposide or staurosporin, an active calpain activity cleaves Bax at its N‐terminus, generating a potent proapoptotic 18‐kDa fragment (Bax/p18). Both the calpain‐mediated Bax cleavage activity and the Bax/p18 fragment were found in the mitochondrial membrane‐enriched fraction. Cleavage of Bax was followed by release of mitochondrial cytochrome c, activation of caspase‐3, cleavage of poly(ADP‐ribose) polymerase, and fragmentation of DNA. Unlike the full‐length Bax, Bax/p18 did not interact with the antiapoptotic Bcl‐2 protein in the mitochondrial fraction of drug‐treated cells. Pretreatment with a specific calpain inhibitor calpeptin inhibited etoposide‐induced calpain activation, Bax cleavage, cytochrome c release, and caspase‐3 activation. In contrast, transfection of a cloned Bax/p18 cDNA into multiple human cancer cell lines targeted Bax/p18 to mitochondria, which was accompanied by release of cytochrome c and induction of caspase‐3‐mediated apoptosis that was not blocked by overexpression of Bcl‐2 protein. Therefore, Bax/p18 has a cytochrome c–releasing activity that promotes cell death independent of Bcl‐2. Finally, Bcl‐2 overexpression inhibited etoposide‐induced calpain activation, Bax cleavage, cytochrome c release, and apoptosis. Our results suggest that the mitochondrial calpain plays an essential role in apoptotic commitment by cleaving Bax and generating the Bax/p18 fragment, which in turn mediates cytochrome c release and initiates the apoptotic execution. J. Cell. Biochem. 80:53–72, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Caspase-dependent cytosolic release of cytochrome c and membrane translocation of Bax in p53-induced apoptosis

Activation of p53 induces apoptosis in various cell types. However, the mechanism by which p53 induces apoptosis is still unclear. We reported previously that the activation of a temperature-sensitive mutant p53 (p53(138Val)) induced activation of caspase 3 and apoptosis in Jurkat cells. To elucidate the pathway linking p53 and downstream caspases, we examined the activation of caspases 8 and 9 in apoptotic cells. The results showed that both caspases were activated during apoptosis as judged by the appearance of cleavage products from procaspases and the caspase activities to cleave specific fluorogenic substrates. The significant inhibition of apoptosis by a tetrapeptide inhibitor of caspase 8 and caspase 9 suggested that both caspases are required for apoptosis induction. In addition, the membrane translocation of Bax and cytosolic release of cytochrome c, but not loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, were detected at an early stage of apoptosis. Moreover, Bax translocation, cytochrome c release, and caspase 9 activation were blocked by the broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-fmk and the caspase 8-preferential inhibitor, Ac-IETD-CHO, suggesting that the mitochondria might participate in apoptosis by amplifying the upstream death signals. In conclusion, our results indicated that activation of caspase 8 or other caspase(s) by p53 triggered the membrane translocation of Bax and cytosolic release of cytochrome c, which might amplify the apoptotic signal by activating caspase 9 and its downstream caspases.     

Hsp70 inhibits heat-induced apoptosis upstream of mitochondria by preventing Bax translocation

Hsp70 overexpression can protect cells from stress-induced apoptosis. Our previous observation that Hsp70 inhibits cytochrome c release in heat-stressed cells led us to examine events occurring upstream of mitochondrial disruption. In this study we examined the effects of heat shock on the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bax because of its central role in regulating cytochrome c release in stressed cells. We found that heat shock caused a conformational change in Bax that leads to its translocation to mitochondria, stable membrane association, and oligomerization. All of these events were inhibited in cells that had elevated levels of Hsp70. Hsp70 did not physically interact with Bax in control or heat-shocked cells, indicating that Hsp70 acts to suppress signals leading to Bax activation. Hsp70 inhibited stress-induced JNK activation and inhibition of JNK with SP600125 or by expression of a dominant negative mutant of JNK-blocked Bax translocation as effectively as Hsp70 overexpression. Hsp70 did not protect cells expressing a mutant form of Bax that has constitutive membrane insertion capability or cells treated with a small molecule activator of apoptosome formation, indicating that it is unable to prevent cell death after mitochondrial disruption and caspase activation have occurred. These results indicate that Hsp70 blocks heat-induced apoptosis primarily by inhibiting Bax activation and thereby preventing the release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria. Hsp70, therefore, inhibits events leading up to mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in heat-stressed cells and thereby controls the decision to die but does not interfere with cell death after this event has occurred.     

Caspase-2 triggers Bax-Bak-dependent and -independent cell death in colon cancer cells treated with resveratrol

Polyphenol phytoalexin (resveratrol), found in grapes and red wine is a strong chemopreventive agent with promising safety records with human consumption and unique forms of cell death induction in a variety of tumor cells. However, the mechanism of resveratrol-induced apoptosis upstream of mitochondria is still not defined. The results from this study suggest that caspase-2 activation occurs upstream of mitochondria in resveratrol-treated cells. The upstream activation of caspase-2 is not dependent on its antioxidant property or NF-kappaB inhibition. The activated caspase-2 triggers mitochondrial apoptotic events by inducing conformational changes in Bax/Bak with subsequent release of cytochrome c, apoptosis-inducing factor, and endonuclease G. Caspase-8 activation seems to be independent of these events and does not appear to be mediated by classical death receptor processing or downstream caspases. Both caspase-2 and caspase-8 contribute toward the mitochondrial translocation of Bid, since neither caspase-8 inhibition nor caspase-2 inhibition could prevent translocation of Bid DsRed into mitochondria. Caspase-2 inhibitors or antisense silencing of caspase-2 prevented cell death induced by resveratrol and partially prevented processing of downstream caspases, including caspase-9, caspase-3, and caspase-8. Studies using mouse embryonic fibroblasts deficient for both Bax and Bak indicate the contribution of both Bax and Bak in mediating cell death induced by resveratrol and the existence of Bax/Bak-independent cell death possibly through caspase-8- or caspase-2-mediated mitochondria-independent downstream caspase processing.     

Muscarinic receptor activation protects cells from apoptotic effects of DNA damage,oxidative stress,and mitochondrial inhibition

The impact of muscarinic receptor stimulation was examined on apoptotic signaling induced by DNA damage, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial impairment. Exposure of human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells to the DNA-damaging agent camptothecin increased p53 levels, activated caspase-3, and caused cell death. Pretreatment with oxotremorine-M, a selective agonist of muscarinic receptors that are expressed endogenously in these cells, did not affect the accumulation of p53 but greatly attenuated caspase-3 activation and protected from cell death to nearly the same extent as treatment with a general caspase inhibitor. Treatment with 50-200 microm H(2)O(2) caused the activation of caspase-3 beginning after 2-3 h, followed by eventual cell death. Oxotremorine-M pretreatment protected cells from H(2)O(2)-induced caspase-3 activation and death, and this was equivalent to protection afforded by a caspase inhibitor. Muscarinic receptor stimulation also protected cells from caspase-3 activation induced by exposure to rotenone, a mitochondrial complex 1 inhibitor, but no protection was evident from staurosporine-induced caspase-3 activation. The mechanism of protection afforded by muscarinic receptor activation from camptothecin-induced apoptotic signaling involved blockade of mitochondrial cytochrome c release associated with a bolstering of mitochondrial bcl-2 levels and blockade of the translocation of Bax to mitochondria. Likely the most proximal of these events to muscarinic receptor activation, mitochondrial Bax accumulation, also was attenuated by oxotremorine-M treatment after treatment with H(2)O(2) or rotenone. These results demonstrate that stimulation of muscarinic receptors provides substantial protection from DNA damage, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial impairment, insults that may be encountered by neurons in development, aging, or neurodegenerative diseases. These findings suggest that neurotransmitter-induced signaling bolsters survival mechanisms, and inadequate neurotransmission may exacerbate neuronal loss.     

Amplification of the gamma-irradiation-induced cell death pathway by reactive oxygen species in human U937 cells

Given the critical involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cell death, their hierarchical status in the cell pathway has been analyzed by many investigators. However, it has been shown that ROS can act either upstream or downstream of various death mediators depending on experimental settings. To investigate whether the contrasting relationships may exist in a single model system, human U937 cells were irradiated with lethal doses of gamma-rays. This resulted in a promotion of mitochondrial ROS production, which was found to be induced via sequential actions of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), Bax, and caspase-3. Interestingly, the induced ROS, in turn, re-activated JNK, Bax, and caspase-3 in the same model system. Consistently, the blockade of Bax action by RNA interference or Bcl-2 overexpression abolished the activation of JNK induced after, but not before, the production of ROS. Bcl-2 overexpression also blocked the translocation of Bax from the cytosol to the mitochondria only after the induction of ROS. Functional analyses revealed that the initial ROS-independent activations of JNK, Bax, and caspase-3 are not sufficient for cell death, and thus, should be re-activated by ROS in order to kill the cells. These findings suggest that ROS do not simply mediate the lethal action of gamma-irradiation, but actually amplify it by forming a feedback loop between a downstream effector caspase and the upstream initiation signals leading to the activation of JNK. This role for ROS appears to allow Bcl-2 to block the signaling events, which are initially induced upstream.     

Taiwan cobra phospholipase A2‐elicited JNK activation is responsible for autocrine fas‐mediated cell death and modulating Bcl‐2 and Bax protein expression in human leukemia K562 cells

Phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) from Naja naja atra venom induced apoptotic death of human leukemia K562 cells. Degradation of procaspases, production of tBid, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, Bcl‐2 degradation, mitochondrial translocation of Bax, and cytochrome c release were observed in PLA₂‐treated cells. Moreover, PLA₂ treatment increased Fas and FasL protein expression. Upon exposure to PLA₂, activation of p38 MAPK (mitogen‐activated protein kinase) and JNK (c‐Jun NH₂‐terminal kinase) was found in K562 cells. SB202190 (p38 MAPK inhibitor) pretreatment enhanced cytotoxic effect of PLA₂ and led to prolonged JNK activation, but failed to affect PLA₂‐induced upregulation of Fas and FasL protein expression. Sustained JNK activation aggravated caspase8/mitochondria‐dependent death pathway, downregulated Bcl‐2 expression and increased mitochondrial translocation of Bax. SP600125 (JNK inhibitor) abolished the cytotoxic effect of PLA₂ and PLA₂‐induced autocrine Fas death pathway. Transfection ASK1 siRNA and overexpression of dominant negative p38α MAPK proved that ASK1 pathway was responsible for PLA₂‐induced p38 MAPK and JNK activation and p38α MAPK activation suppressed dynamically persistent JNK activation. Downregulation of FADD abolished PLA₂‐induced procaspase‐8 degradation and rescued viability of PLA₂‐treated cells. Taken together, our results indicate that JNK‐mediated autocrine Fas/FasL apoptotic mechanism and modulation of Bcl‐2 family proteins are involved in PLA₂‐induced death of K562 cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 109: 245–254, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Calphostin C-mediated translocation and integration of Bax into mitochondria induces cytochrome c release before mitochondrial dysfunction

Calphostin C-mediated apoptosis in glioma cells was reported previously to be associated with down-regulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. In this study, we report that 100 nM calphostin C also induces translocation and integration of monomeric Bax into mitochondrial membrane, followed by cytochrome c release into cytosol and subsequent decrease of mitochondrial inner membrane potential (DeltaPsim) before activation of caspase-3. The integration of monomeric Bax was associated with acquirement of alkali-resistance. The translocated monomeric Bax was partly homodimerized after cytochrome c release and decrease of DeltaPsim. The translocation and homodimerization of Bax, cytochrome c release, and decrease of DeltaPsim were not blocked by 100 microM z-VAD.fmk, a pan-caspase inhibitor, but the homodimerization of Bax and decrease of DeltaPsim were inhibited by 10 microM oligomycin, a mitochondrial F0F1-ATPase inhibitor. Therefore, it would be assumed that mitochondrial release of cytochrome c results from translocation and integration of Bax and is independent of permeability transition of mitochondria and caspase activation, representing a critical step in calphostin C-induced cell death.     

Cellular death linked to irreversible stress in the sarcoplasmic reticulum: the effect of inhibiting Ca(2+) -ATPase or protein glycosylation in the myocardiac cell model H9c2

Experimental sarcoplasmic reticulum damage induced by 3 microM thapsigargin or 1 microg/ml tunicamycin provoked viability loss of the cell population in approximately 72 h. Release of cytochrome c from mitochondria was an early event and Bax translocation to the mitochondria preceded or was simultaneous with cytochrome c release. The release of cytochrome c was not related with mitochondria depolarization or caspase activation. Irreversible stress in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, detected by the early activation of caspase 12, was functionally linked to the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Caspase 3 processing was blocked by cells preincubation with a selective inhibitor of either caspase 9 or caspase 8 whereas caspase 8 activation was inhibited by a selective caspase 9 inhibitor. This was consistent with the involvement of caspase 8 in a positive feedback loop leading to amplify the caspase cascade. Caspase inhibition did not protect against cell death indicating the existence of alternative caspase-independent mechanisms.     

p53 induces apoptosis by caspase activation through mitochondrial cytochrome c release

The p53 tumor suppressor gene is critically involved in cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and programmed cell death. Several lines of evidence suggest that p53 death signals lead to caspase activation; however, the mechanism of caspase activation by p53 still is unclear. Expressing wild type p53 by means of an adenoviral expression vector, we were able to induce apoptotic cell death, as characterized by morphological changes, phosphatidylserine externalization, and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, in p53(null) Saos-2 cells. This cell death was accompanied by caspase activation as well as by cleavage of caspase substrates and was preceded by mitochondrial cytochrome c release. The addition of the broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethyl ketone (zVAD-fmk) directly after transduction almost completely prevented p53-induced apoptotic cell death but did not inhibit mitochondrial cytochrome c release. In contrast, N-acetylcysteine, even at high concentrations, could not prevent induction of programmed cell death by p53 expression. Cytosolic extracts from Saos-2 cells transduced with p53, but not from Saos-2 cells transduced with the empty adenoviral vector, contained a cytochrome c-releasing activity in vitro, which was still active in the presence of zVAD-fmk. When Bax was immunodepleted from the cytosolic extracts of p53-expressing cells before incubation with isolated mitochondria, the in vitro cytochrome c release was abolished. Thus, we could demonstrate in cells and in vitro that p53 activates the apoptotic machinery through induction of the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Furthermore, we provide in vitro evidence for the requirement of cytosolic Bax for this cytochrome c-releasing activity of p53 in Saos-2 cells.     

Cordyceps sinensis mycelium extract induces human premyelocytic leukemia cell apoptosis through mitochondrion pathway

This study was to identify the signaling pathways for the induction of HL-60 cell apoptosis by Cordyceps sinensis mycelium extract (CSME). CSME at 25 mug/ml induced nuclear fragmentation and DNA degradation, two hallmark events of apoptosis, in the HL-60 cells within 12-24 hrs of treatment. Concomitantly, several major events in the mitochondrial signal pathway occurred, including the loss of MTP (DeltaPsi(m)), cytochrome c release into the cytoplasm, the decrease in Bcl-2 protein level, the translocation of Bax protein from cytoplasm into mitochondria, and the activation of caspase-2, -3, and -9, but caspase-8, the initiator caspase in the death receptor pathway, was not activated. These results suggest that CSME induces apoptosis in HL-60 cell through the mitochondrial pathway rather than the death receptor pathway.     

The novel triterpenoid 2-cyano-3,12-dioxooleana-1,9-dien-28-oic acid (CDDO) potently enhances apoptosis induced by tumor necrosis factor in human leukemia cells

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a potent activator of the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) pathway that leads to up-regulation of anti-apoptotic proteins. Hence, TNF induces apoptosis in the presence of inhibitors of protein or RNA synthesis. We report that a novel triterpenoid, 2-cyano-3,12-dioxooleana-1,9,-dien-28-oic acid (CDDO) inhibits NF-kappaB-mediated gene expression at a step after translocation of activated NF-kappaB to the nucleus. This effect appears specific for the NF-kappaB pathway as CDDO does not inhibit gene expression induced by the phorbol ester 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). CDDO in combination with TNF caused a dramatic increase in apoptosis in ML-1 leukemia cells that was associated with activation of caspase-8, cleavage of Bid, translocation of Bax, cytochrome c release, and caspase-3 activation. Experiments with caspase inhibitors demonstrated that caspase-8 was an initiator of this pathway. TNF also induced a transient activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), which upon addition of CDDO was converted to a sustained activation. The activation of JNK was also dependent on caspase-8. Sustained activation of JNK is frequently pro-apoptotic, yet inhibition of JNK did not prevent Bax translocation or cytochrome c release, demonstrating its lack of involvement in CDDO/TNF-induced apoptosis. Apoptosis was acutely induced by CDDO/TNF in every leukemia cell line tested including those that overexpress Bcl-x(L), suggesting that the mitochondrial pathway is not required for apoptosis by this combination. These results suggest that the apoptotic potency of the CDDO/TNF combination occurs through selective inhibition of NF-kappaB-dependent anti-apoptotic proteins, bypassing potential mitochondrial resistance mechanisms, and thus may provide a basis for the development of novel approaches to the treatment of leukemia.     

β-lapachone significantly increases the effect of ionizing radiation to cause mitochondrial apoptosis via JNK activation in cancer cells

Background

β-lapachone (β-lap), has been known to cause NQO1-dependnet death in cancer cells and sensitize cancer cells to ionizing radiation (IR). We investigated the mechanisms underlying the radiosensitization caused by β-lap.

Methodology/Principal Findings

β-lap enhanced the effect of IR to cause clonogenic cells in NQO1⁺-MDA-MB-231 cells but not in NQO1⁻-MDA-MB-231 cells. β-lap caused apoptosis only in NQO1⁺ cells and not in NQO1⁻ cells and it markedly increased IR-induced apoptosis only in NQO1⁺ cells. Combined treatment of NQO1⁺ cells induced ROS generation, triggered ER stress and stimulated activation of ERK and JNK. Inhibition of ROS generation by NAC effectively attenuated the activation of ERK and JNK, induction of ER stress, and subsequent apoptosis. Importantly, inhibition of ERK abolished ROS generation and ER stress, whereas inhibition of JNK did not, indicating that positive feedback regulation between ERK activation and ROS generation triggers ER stress in response to combined treatment. Furthermore, prevention of ER stress completely blocked combination treatment-induced JNK activation and subsequent apoptotic cell death. In addition, combined treatment efficiently induced the mitochondrial translocation of cleaved Bax, disrupted mitochondrial membrane potential, and the nuclear translocation of AIF, all of which were efficiently blocked by a JNK inhibitor. Caspases 3, 8 and 9 were activated by combined treatment but inhibition of these caspases did not abolish apoptosis indicating caspase activation played a minor role in the induction of apoptosis.

Conclusions/Significance

β-lap causes NQO1-dependent radiosensitization of cancer cells. When NQO1⁺ cells are treated with combination of IR and β-lap, positive feedback regulation between ERK and ROS leads to ER stress causing JNK activation and mitochondrial translocation of cleaved Bax. The resultant decrease in mitochondrial membrane leads to translocation of AIF and apoptosis.     

Involvement of Akt in mitochondria-dependent apoptosis induced by a cdc25 phosphatase inhibitor naphthoquinone analog

Vitamin K-related analogs induce growth inhibition via a cell cycle arrest through cdc25A phosphatase inhibition in various cancer cell lines. We report that 2,3-dichloro-5,8-dihydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (DDN), a naphthoquinone analog, induces mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells. DDN induced cytochrome c release, Bax translocation, cleavage of Bid and Bad, and activation of caspase-3, -8, -9 upon the induction of apoptosis. Cleavage of Bid, the caspase-8 substrate, was inhibited by the broad caspase inhibitor z-Val-Ala-Asp(OMe)-fluoromethylketone (zVAD-fmk), whereas cytochrome c release was not affected, suggesting that activation of caspase-8 and subsequent Bid cleavage occur downstream of cytochrome c release. DDN inhibited the activation of Akt detected by decreasing level of phosphorylation. Overexpression of constitutively active Akt protected cells from DDN-induced apoptosis, while dominant negative Akt moderately enhanced cell death. Furthermore, Akt prevented release of cytochrome c and cleavage of Bad in DDN-treated HL-60 cells. Taken together, DDN-induced apoptosis is associated with mitochondrial signaling which involves cytochrome c release via a mechanism inhibited by Akt.     

Bax and the mitochondrial permeability transition cooperate in the release of cytochrome c during endoplasmic reticulum-stress-induced apoptosis

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress induces apoptosis by mechanisms that are not fully clear. Here we show that ER stress induced by the Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin (THG) activates cytochrome c-dependent apoptosis through cooperation between Bax and the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) in human leukemic CEM cells. Pharmacological inhibition of the MPT as well as small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of the MPT core component cyclophilin D blocked cytochrome c release and caspase-dependent apoptosis but did not prevent Bax activation, translocation or N-terminal exposure in mitochondria. siRNA knockdown of Bax also blocked THG-mediated cytochrome c release and apoptosis, but did not prevent MPT activation and resulted in caspase-independent cell death. Our results show that ER-stress-induced cell death involves a caspase and Bax-dependent pathway as well as a caspase-independent MPT-directed pathway.     

The hierarchical relationship between MAPK signaling and ROS generation in human leukemia cells undergoing apoptosis in response to the proteasome inhibitor Bortezomib

The hierarchy of events accompanying induction of apoptosis by the proteasome inhibitor Bortezomib was investigated in Jurkat lymphoblastic and U937 myelomonocytic leukemia cells. Treatment of Jurkat or U937 cells with Bortezomib resulted in activation of c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), inactivation of extracellular signal-regulating kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), cytochrome c release, caspase-9, -3, and -8 activation, and apoptosis. Bortezomib-mediated cytochrome c release and caspase activation were blocked by the pharmacologic JNK inhibitor SP600125, but lethality was not diminished by the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580. Inducible expression of a constitutively active MEK1 construct blocked Bortezomib-mediated ERK1/2 inactivation, significantly attenuated Bortezomib lethality, and unexpectedly prevented JNK activation. Conversely, pharmacologic MEK/ERK1/2 inhibition promoted Bortezomib-mediated JNK activation and apoptosis. Lastly, the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine (LNAC) attenuated Bortezomib-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, ERK inactivation, JNK activation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis. In contrast, enforced MEK1 and ERK1/2 activation or JNK inhibition did not modify Bortezomib-induced ROS production. Together, these findings suggest that in human leukemia cells, Bortezomib-induced oxidative injury operates at a proximal point in the cell death cascade to antagonize cytoprotective ERK1/2 signaling, promote activation of the stress-related JNK pathway, and to trigger mitochondrial dysfunction, caspase activation, and apoptosis. They also suggest the presence of a feedback loop wherein Bortezomib-mediated ERK1/2 inactivation contributes to JNK activation, thereby amplifying the cell death process.     

JNK- and p38 kinase-mediated phosphorylation of Bax leads to its activation and mitochondrial translocation and to apoptosis of human hepatoma HepG2 cells

Mitochondrial translocation of pro-apoptotic Bax prior to apoptosis is well established after treatment with many cell death stimulants or under apoptosis-inducing conditions. The mechanism of mitochondrial translocation of Bax is, however, still unknown. The aim of this work was to investigate the mechanism of Bax activation and mitochondrial translocation to initiate apoptosis of human hepatoma HepG2 and porcine kidney LLC-PK1 cells exposed to various cell death agonists. Phosphorylation of Bax by JNK and p38 kinase activated after treatment with staurosporine, H(2)O(2), etoposide, and UV light was demonstrated by the shift in the pI value of Bax on two-dimensional gels and confirmed by metabolic labeling with inorganic [(32)P]phosphate in HepG2 cells. Specific inhibitors of JNK and p38 kinase significantly inhibited Bax phosphorylation and mitochondrial translocation and apoptosis of HepG2 cells. A specific small interfering RNA to MAPKK4 (the upstream protein kinase of JNK and p38 kinase) markedly decreased the levels of MAPKK4 and MAPKK3/6, blocked the activation of JNK or p38 kinase, and inhibited Bax phosphorylation. However, the negative control small interfering RNA did not cause these changes. Confocal microscopy of various Bax mutants showed differential rates of mitochondrial translocation of Bax before and after staurosporine treatment. Among the Bax mutants, T167D did not translocate to mitochondria after staurosporine exposure, suggesting that Thr(167) is a potential phosphorylation site. In conclusion, our results demonstrate, for the first time, that Bax is phosphorylated by stress-activated JNK and/or p38 kinase and that phosphorylation of Bax leads to mitochondrial translocation prior to apoptosis.     

Beta-phenylethyl isothiocyanate mediated apoptosis; contribution of Bax and the mitochondrial death pathway

The initiating events that lead to the induction of apoptosis mediated by the chemopreventative agent beta-phenyethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) have yet to be elucidated. In the present investigation, we examined the effects of PEITC on mitochondrial function and apoptotic signaling in hepatoma HepG2 cells and isolated rat hepatocyte mitochondria. PEITC induced a conformational change in Bax leading to its translocation to mitochondria in HepG2 cells. Bax accumulation was associated with a rapid loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Deltapsim), impaired respiratory chain enzymatic activity, release of mitochondrial cytochrome c and the activation of caspase-dependent cell death. Caspase inhibition did not prevent Bax translocation, the release of cytochrome c or the loss of Deltapsim, but blocked caspase-mediated DNA fragmentation and cell death. To determine whether PEITC dependent Bax translocation caused loss of Deltapsim by the activation of the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), we examined the effects of PEITC in isolated rat hepatocyte mitochondria. Interestingly, PEITC did not induce MPT in isolated rat mitochondria. Accordingly, using pharmacological inhibitors of MPT namely cyclosporine A, trifluoperazine and Bongkrekic acid we were unable to block PEITC mediated apoptosis in HepG2 cells, this suggesting that mitochondrial permeablisation is a likely consequence of Bax dependent pore formation. Taken together, our data suggest that mitochondria are a key target in PEITC induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells via the pore forming ability of pro-apoptotic Bax.     

The role of p38 MAPK and JNK in Arsenic trioxide-induced mitochondrial cell death in human cervical cancer cells

Previously, we have shown that the release of AIF from mitochondria is required for As2O3-induced cell death in human cervical cancer cells, and that reactive oxygen species (ROS) is necessary for AIF release from mitochondria. In this study, we further investigated the role of MAPKs in ROS-mediated mitochondrial apoptotic cell death triggered by As2O3. As2O3-induced apoptotic cell death in HeLa cells was associated with activation and mitochondrial translocation of Bax, a marked phosphorylation of Bcl-2, reduction of Bcl-2 and Bax interaction, dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential. Using small interfering RNA, reduced Bax expression effectively attenuated As2O3-induced mitochondrial membrane potential loss and apoptotic cell death. Moreover, the phosphorylation of Bcl-2 induced by As2O3 diminished its ability to bind to Bax. Treatment of cells with As2O3 activated both the p38 MAPK and JNK pathways. Mitochondrial translocation of Bax was completely suppressed in the presence of p38 MAPK inhibitor PD169316 or si-p38 MAPK. The As2O3-induced Bcl-2 phosphorylation was attenuated largely by JNK inhibition using SP600125 or si-JNK and to some extent by p38 MAPK inhibition with PD169316 or si-p38 MAPK. In addition, N-acetyl-L-cystein (NAC), a thiol-containing anti-oxidant, completely blocked As2O3-induced p38 MAPK and JNK activations, mitochondria translocation of Bax, and phosphorylation of Bcl-2. These results support a notion that ROS-mediated activations of p38 MAPK and JNK in response to As2O3 treatment signals activation of Bax and phosphorylation of Bcl-2, resulting in mitochondrial apoptotic cell death in human cervical cancer cells.