Condensed tannins in the tissue culture of sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.) and birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.)

Two forage legumes, birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) and sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.), containing condensed tannins in their leaves and stems were used as source material to study condensed tannins in tissue culture. More protoplasts were isolated from mesophyll tissue of a low tannin-containing strain of birdsfoot trefoil than from a high tannin-containing strain, but more tannin-filled protoplasts were observed in the latter. Growth rates of leaf explant-derived callus tissue were greater for the high-tannin than for the low-tannin strain. In sainfoin, callus cultures from leaf explants produced numerous tannin-filled cells by 21 days. Explants from sainfoin cotyledons and roots, tissues which normally do not contain tannins, also formed callus with tannin-filled cells in 21 days but in almost every case, a cytokinin was required for tannin formation to occur. The occurrence of tannin-filled cells in callus from root and cotyledon explants was variable and genotype specific. These results show that endogenous tannins can affect protoplast isolation and possibly callus growth in birds-foot trefoil, and that the formation of condensed tannins in sainfoin callus culture can be influenced by a growth regulator.Abbreviations BAP benzylaminopurine - KIN kinetin - NAA naphthaleneacetic acid - PAR photosynthetically active radiation Contribution no. 920 of Agriculture Canada Research Station, 107 Science Cres., Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N OX2     

Microcallus growth from maize protoplasts

Maize (Zea mays L.) protoplasts obtained from Type I and Type II calli from several genotypes were shown to be capable of synthesizing cell walls and forming small clusters of cells. The medium used also supported cluster formation from protoplasts obtained from root tips. The effects of various additions to the medium (such as casein hydrolysate, coconut water, amino acids, sugars, phytohormones, nitrate, calcium, and dimethylsulfoxide as well as pH variations on cellcluster formation were determined. The method of culture (protoplasts plated in agarose or supported in alginate beads in liquid medium) as well as several components of the medium were found to be critical for microcallus formation. Protoplasts obtained from embryogenic Type I callus and cultured in the medium of C. Nitsch and J.P. Nitsch (1967, Planta 72, 355–370) modified by various additions (NN 67-mod medium) were affected most by various sugars, casein hydrolysate, coconut water, and a combination of the auxins napthalene-1-acetic acid (2 mg/l) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (0.1 mg/l), and the cytokinin N⁶-benzylaminopurine (0.5 mg/l). Cluster size in the agarose culture system was from 0.1 to 0.5 mm diameter and in the alginate culture system, up to 2.0 mm diameter.     

High frequency callus formation from maize protoplasts

Summary A solid feeder layer technique was developed to improve callus formation of Black Mexican Sweet maize (Zea mays L.) suspension culture protoplasts. Protoplasts were plated in 0.2 ml liquid media onto a cellulose nitrate filter on top of agarose-solidified media in which Black Mexican Sweet suspension feeder cells were embedded. Callus colony formation frequencies exceeding 10% of the plated protoplasts were obtained for densities of 10³–10⁵ protoplasts/ 0.2 ml, which was 100- to 1,000-fold higher than colony formation frequencies obtained for conventional protoplast plating methods such as liquid culture or embedding in agarose media. Compared with conventional methods, the feeder layer method gave higher colony formation frequencies for three independently maintained Black Mexican Sweet suspension lines. Differences among the three lines indicated that colony formation frequencies might also be influenced by the suspension culture maintenance regime and length of time on different 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid concentrations. The callus colony formation frequency reported is an essential prerequesite for recovering rare mutants or genetically transformed maize protoplasts.     

Callus formation from protoplasts of culturedSpinacia oleracea cells

Cell suspensions were initiated from plumule derived calli ofSpinacia oleracea. Some of these cell lines could be maintained in culture for at least three years without a reduced growth rate. A high yield of protoplasts was obtained from the cell suspensions. When protoplasts were cultured in Murashige and Skoog medium with naphthaleneacetic acid and 6-benzyladenine, cell wall formation was observed after three days. The cultured protoplasts produced numerous cell-clusters within two weeks. However only protoplasts isolated from suspensions which were in a rapidly dividing phase were able to divide with a high frequency and give rise to callus colonies.     

Lipid synthesis in callus and protoplasts during culture: Analysis of dividing protoplasts of Petunia hybrida and non-dividing protoplasts of Parthenocissus tricuspidata

The purpose of the investigation was to study the process, by which protoplasts derived from callus tissue overcome the hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids, which is induced by the isolation. Dividing protoplasts from Petunia hybrida L. (line SFla) and non-dividing protoplasts from Parthenocissus tricurpidara L. crown gall (Morel strain) were fed with sodium [1-¹⁴C]-acetate for 1 h. The incorporation was carried out at protoplast isolation and after 1, 2, 4 and 7 days of culture. The rates of fatty acid and lipid synthesis were then followed. Isolation stress induced diversions in the utilization of the precursor via triacylglycerol ( Petuunia ) or diacylglycerol ( Partheno-cissus ) and a decrease in the synthesis of oleic acid ( Parrhenocissus ). During the first 2 days of culture, the rate of phospholipid synthesis was similar in both systems. Later on, an increase in the rate and in the efficiency of phospholipid synthesis was observed in dividing Petunia protoplasts. The accelerated rate of lipid synthesis allowed them to recover the same partitioning and content in membrane phospholipids as the reference cells in the callus. This process seemed to bc related to cell division, since it was not observed in the non-dividing protoplasts of Parthenocissus .     

Differences in oxidative stress, antioxidant systems, and microscopic analysis between regenerating callus-derived protoplasts and recalcitrant leaf mesophyll-derived protoplasts of Citrus reticulata Blanco

It is known that protoplasts derived from either leaves or suspension cultures of a citrus genotype vary greatly in their regeneration capacities; however, the underlying physiological mechanisms are not well known. In this study, oxidative stress and antioxidant systems during in vitro culture of callus-derived protoplasts and leaf mesophyll-derived protoplasts of Ponkan (Citrus reticulata Blanco) were analyzed to gain insights into observed physiological differences. Morphological observations using light microscopy and scanning microscopy have shown that new cell wall materials appeared within 2–3 days, and the integrate cell walls were regenerated approximately after 6 days of culture of the callus protoplasts, whereas no cell wall formation was observed in the mesophyll protoplasts after culture. During the culture, higher levels of H₂O₂ and malondialdehyde were detected in the mesophyll protoplasts as compared with the callus ones. On the contrary, the callus protoplasts possessed higher activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POD and CAT) and larger amount of glutathione and ascorbic acid (at one time point) than the mesophyll protoplasts during the culture process. The current data indicate that the mesophyll and callus protoplasts displayed remarkable difference in the degree of oxidative stress and the antioxidant systems, suggesting that high levels of antioxidant activities might play an important role in the regeneration of protoplasts.     

Plantlet formation from isolated protoplasts ofSolanum melongena L.

Summary Mesophyll protoplasts were isolated from axenic shoot cultures ofSolanum melongena by the one-step enzymatic method. Of the different media employed for the culture of protoplasts, a medium modified fromKao andMichayluk (1975) supported sustained mitotic cycles most effectively. Organogenesis from protoplast-derived callus was achieved on transfer toMurashige andSkoog'S (1962) medium supplemented with an appropriate auxin and a cytokinin.     

Induction of efficient cell division in alfalfa protoplasts

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) protoplasts derived from cell suspension cultures divided inefficiently in liquid culture. The onset of cell division activity occurred synchronously among the protoplasts; however, many were blocked at cytokinesis and therefore did not complete first division. Very few of the cells that began to divide continued to do so. Immobilization of protoplasts in agarose after 1 to 4 days in liquid culture overcame this inhibition of division. Continuous growth in agarose was restricted and therefore microcolonies were transferred to agar medium to complete callus development. Plating efficiencies of 2–10% were achieved within 30 days of protoplast isolation. The agarose treatment was responsible for a 5- to 30-fold improvement in plating efficiency.Contribution No. 774 Ottawa Research Station     

Plant regeneration from suspension culture and mesophyll protoplasts of Medicago sativa L.

A system was established for achieving plant regeneration from mesophyll protoplasts and cotyledon-derived cell suspension cultures of alfalfa, Medicago sativa L. Peeled leaflets or cells from 6-day-old cell suspensions were incubated in an enzyme mixture containing 1% Driselase, 1% Rhozyme, 0.1% Cellulase and 72 gl^-1 mannitol at pH 5.8 for 2–16 h to liberate protoplasts. A complex Kao medium supported cell division and colony formation, whereas a high auxin/low cytokinin treatment on Schenk and Hildebrandt medium followed by culture on growth regulator-free Blaydes or Linsmaier and Skoog medium resulted in somatic embryo formation. Of the three varieties tested. Citation, Answer and Regen S, the latter two produced embryos from which plants could be regenerated.     

Plant regeneration from indica rice (Oryza sativa L.) protoplasts

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants of the indica cultivar IR54 were regenerated from protoplasts. Conditions were developed for isolating and purifying protoplasts from suspension cultures with protoplast yields ranging from 1·10⁶ to 15·10⁶ viable protoplasts/1 g fresh weight. Protoplast viability after purification was generally over 90%. Protoplasts were cultured in a slightly modified Kao medium in a Petri plate by placing them onto a Millipore filter positioned on top of a feeder (nurse) culture containing cells from a suspension culture of the japonica rice, Calrose 76. Plating efficiencies of protoplasts ranged from 0.5 to 3.0%; it was zero in the absence of the nurse culture. Protoplast preparations usually contained no contaminating cells, and when present, the number of cells never exceeded 0.1% of the protoplasts. After three weeks the Millipore filter with callus colonies were transferred off feeder cells and onto a Linsmaier and Skoog-type medium for an additional three weeks. Selected callus colonies that had embryo-like structures were then transferred to regeneration medium containing cytokinins, and regeneration frequencies up to 80% were obtained. Small shoots emerged and were transferred to jars for root development prior to transferring to pots of soil and growing the plants to maturity in growth chambers. Of the cytokinins evaluated, N⁶-benzylaminopurine was the most effective in promoting shoot formation; however, kinetin was also somewhat effective. Regeneration medium could be either an N₆ or Murashige and Skoog basal medium. Of 76 plants grown to maturity, 62 were fertile, and the plant heights averaged about three-fourths the height of seed-grown plants.Two other suspension cultures of IR54, one developed from the protoplast callus of the initial IR54 line, and the other developed from callus produced by mature seeds, have yielded protoplasts capable of regenerating plants when using cells of the Calrose 76 suspension as a nurse culture. In addition, protoplasts obtained from three-week-old primary callus of immature embryos of IR54 were capable of regenerating plants when using the same culture conditions.Abbreviations 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - pcy packed cell volume - BAP N⁶-benzylaminopurine - FDA fluorescein diacetate - FW fresh weight - IAA indole-3-acetic acid Media AA Muller and Grafe (1978) - CPW Frearson et al. (1973) - Kao^* Kao (1977) - LS Linsmaier and Skoog (1965) - MS Murashige and Skoog (1962) - N₆ Chu et al. (1975) - PCM Ludwig et al. (1985)     

Induction of callus formation from difficile date palm protoplasts by means of nurse culture

We report here for the first time callus formation from protoplasts in date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.). Protoplasts were isolated from young leaves of offshoots and embryogenic calli in Deglet nour and Takerboucht genotypes. The protoplast yield depended on genotype, donor plant material, mixture of enzyme solution, and incubation time. With regard to the donor material, the best response was obtained with callus. Cell division was induced in both liquid culture and nurse culture. The best donor material for cell division was callus and the best response was obtained with the feeder layer, which induced a division rate of 30% in Deglet nour and 15% in Takerboucht genotypes. The dividing cells developed to microcalli on the feeder layer; the microcalli developed to calli on modified MS medium; however, the calli failed to regenerate into roots or shoots.     

Isolation and culture of protoplasts from high anthocyanin-producing callus of sweet potato

Optimum conditions for the isolation and culture of protoplasts from high anthocyanin-producing callus of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) were investigated. Growth phase of callus and the ratio of callus-enzyme solution affected the yield of protoplasts. Composition of the medium and protoplast density were examined for protoplast culture.Small colonies were regenerated from the protoplasts. Upon transfer to light a high amount of anthocyanin was accumulated in these colonies.Abbreviations 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - MES 2-(N-morpholino)-ethanesulfonic acid     

Callus production from photoautotrophic soybean cell culture protoplasts

Summary Protoplasts were prepared from a photoautotrophic (PA) cell line of Glycine max (soybean). A yield of 75 to 90% after two to three hours digestion in a mixture of 1% Cellulase R10, 0.2% Pectolyase Y23 and 2% Driselase was obtained. Cell division and colony formation occurred from approximately 18% of the plated protoplasts. The cultured protoplasts were as sensitive to the herbicide atrazine, a photosynthetic inhibitor, as the original PA cells under the same conditions. Protoplasts and cells of a heterotrophic (HT) soybean culture were not as sensitive to atrazine. The isolated protoplasts retained the PA characteristics of the parental culture in the callus and cell suspension cultures obtained from the protoplasts. The chromosome numbers in the parental cell line and in cells derived from the isolated protoplasts (both PA and HT) were found to be largely (99%) the normal diploid number of 40.Abbreviations BA Benzylaminopurine - 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - HT Heterotrophic - MES 2-(morpholino) ethane sulfonic acid - NAA Naphthaleneacetic acid - PA Photoautotrophic - PCM Protoplast culture medium     

High growth rate and regeneration capacity of hypocotyl protoplasts in some Brassicaceae

Protoplasts isolated from 4-day-old hypocotyls of various species of Brassica (Brassica napus, B. campestris and B. oleracea ) produced callus with high efficiency in media containing casein hydrolysate and high concentrations of the auxin 2,4-D (4.5 μM). Cell division began after 24 h and 60% of the cells had divided after 48 h. In contrast, protoplasts isolated from stem and mesophyll of plants grown in vitro or in the greenhouse began to divide after a delay of 3–5 days. In these cases 40–50% of the cells had divided after 5 days as compared to 70% for hypocotyl protoplasts. To obtain a high frequency of regeneration, rapidly growing calli were transferred to media having a high cytokinin:auxin ratio as early as possible, usually 3 weeks after protoplast isolation. The average regeneration frequency for calli obtained from mesophyll protoplasts was 50%, while as many as 70% of the calli derived from hypocotyl protoplasts of B. napus regenerated plantlets on a medium containing zeatin (9.1 μM) and IAA (0.6 μM). On the same medium regeneration of Brassica oleracea was obtained. A low percentage of calli (1%) from Brassica campestris formed shoots when cultured on a combination of zeatin (4.6 μM), BA (4.4 μM) and IAA (0.6 μM).     

Transgenic turf-type tall fescue (Festuca amndinacea Schreb.) plants regenerated from protoplasts

To improve turfgrasses using genetic engineering, we have developed a transformation system in turf-type tall fescue, one of the most important turfgrass species. Embryogenic cell cultures were established after callus induction from embryos of mature seed. The agarose-bead method with nurse cells was used to culture protoplasts and plants were regenerated from protoplasts of tall fescue cultured cells. To develop transgenic tall fescue plants, the hygromycin resistance gene and the -glucuronidase gene were introduced into the tall fescue protoplasts by electroporation. A high concentration (200 mg/l) of hygromycin was required to select transformed cells because of the high level of endogenous resistance to the antibiotic in tall fescue. Most of the transformed cells exhibited GUS activity and several plants were regenerated from these cells. The presence of introduced genes was confirmed by Southern blot hybridization of PCR amplified DNA from transgenic plants.Abbreviations Adh alcohol dehydrogenase - BAP benzylaminopurine - bp base pair(s) - GUS -glucuronidase - Kb kilobase(s) - MS Murashige and Skoog's medium - PCR polymerase chain reaction     

Microcallus formation from maize protoplasts prepared from embryogenic callus

Conditions have been developed that induce maize (Zea mays L.) protoplasts to re-synthesize cell walls and to initiate cell divisions. Two types of embryogenic maize callus were used as a source of protoplasts: a heterogeneous callus (Type I) derived from immature embryos after three weeks in culture, and a friable, rapidly growing callus (Type II) selected from portions of the Type I callus. Many variables in the growth conditions of the donor tissue (type of medium, transfer schedule, age of callus), protoplast isolation solutions (pH, osmolarity, type and concentration of cell wall hydrolyzing enzymes, addition of polyamines) and conditions (amount of time in enzyme, amount of tissue per volume of enzyme incubation medium, agitation, preplasmolysis of source tissue, type of callus), and purification procedures (filtration and-or flotation), were found to affect both yield and viability of protoplasts (based upon fluorescein-diacetate staining). Our isolation procedure yielded high numbers of viable, uninucleated maize callus protoplasts which were densely cytoplasmic and varied in size from 20 to 50 m in diameter. Protoplasts plated in solid medium formed walls and divided several times. Of several gelling agents tested for protoplast propagation, only agarose resulted in protoplasts capable of sustained divisions leading to the formation of microcalli. Plating efficiency was established over a wide range of protoplast densities (10³–10⁷ protoplasts/ml). Highest plating efficiency (25%) was obtained at 1·10⁶ protoplasts/ml). The resulting microcalli grew to be dense clusters of about 0.1–0.5 mm in diameter and then stopped growing. Nurse cultures of maize and carrot (Daucus carota L.), were used to establish that individual protoplasts (not contaminating cells or cell clusters) formed walls and divided. Nurse cultures also increased the efficiency of microcallus formation from protoplasts.Abbreviations 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - MS Murashige and Skoog (1962) salts - MS 1D Murashige and Skoog salts with 1 mg/l 2,4-D - MS 2D Murashige and Skoog salts with 2 mg/l 2,4-D - N₆ medium of Chu et al. (1975) - NN67-mod medium of Nitsch and Nitsch (1967) as modified in the present paper - FDA fluorescein diacetate - LMP low melting point     

Ultrastructural and biochemical aspects of cell wall reconstitution in recalcitrant (grapevine) and regenerating (tobacco) leaf protoplasts

Summary To identify possible reasons that may contribute to recalcitrance in plant protoplasts, the time course of new cell wall deposition was studied by scanning electron microscopy in protoplasts of a recalcitrant species, the grapevine. Results showed that microfibrils were developed after 2 days of culture, that complete cell wall formation occurred on Day 6 to 7 of protoplast culture, and its ultrastructural appearance was identical to that of grapevine leaf-derived callus cells. In addition, a comparative study was undertaken on [U-¹⁴C]glucose uptake and incorporation in ethanol-soluble, cellulosic, and noncellulosic polysaccharide fractions in protoplasts of grapevine and of a readily regenerating species, tobacco, during culture. There was a significantly higher [U-¹⁴C]glucose uptake by tobacco than by grapevine protoplasts. The label distribution in the ethanol-soluble, cellulosic, and noncellulosic fractions of newly synthesized cell walls differed quantitatively between the two species. In particular, the labeled glucose incorporated in the noncellulosic cell wall fraction was threefold greater in tobacco than in grapevine protoplasts. Differences were also revealed in the monosaccharide composition of this fraction between the two species. Addition of dimethyl sulfoxide to the culture medium resulted in a dramatic increase in [U-¹⁴C]glucose uptake by grapevine protoplasts, whereas it exhibited a limited effect in tobacco protoplasts. It showed no effect on the ultrastructural characteristics of new cell wall nor on the incorporation rate of labeled glucose in the cellulosic and noncellulosic cell wall fractions.     

Isolation,culture and division of olive (Olea europaea L.) protoplasts

Protoplasts from Olea europaea L. have been compared in terms of their yield, viability, cell division and callus differentiation. Viable protoplasts were isolated from in vitro cultured leaves and cotyledons by an overnight incubation in an enzyme solution containing 1–1.5% driselase and 0.5M sucrose. This method allowed high yield of purified protoplasts, which floated and formed a dark green band at the meniscus, after centrifugation. Purified protoplasts were diluted to 3×10⁴ protoplasts·ml^–1 in culture medium. After cell wall regeneration, protoplasts gradually increased their volumes under appropriate conditions. The first divisions occurred during the second week in culture. Division efficiency ranged from 5.2 to 9.8% after 20 days in culture. Two weeks later visible microcolonies developed only from cotyledon protoplasts. After 6 weeks in culture, the microcalli were transferred to a solidified culture medium with 0.6% agarose, which induced active callus growth.Abbreviations OM olive proliferation medium, Rugini 1984 - Omg OM for the germination of olive embryos - OMr=OM for root induction - OMp=OM for protoplasts - OMc=OM for callus - BN Bourgin and Nitsch medium 1967 - IBA indol-3-butyric acid - NAA naphthalene acetic acid - 2,4-D dichlorophenoxyacetic acid.     

Plant regeneration through direct somatic embryogenesis from protoplasts of banana (Musa spp.)

Summary We report the isolation and regeneration of protoplasts from an embryogenic banana (Musa spp.) cell suspension culture initiated from in vitro proliferating meristems. A high yielding isolation method (up to 6×10⁷ protoplasts.ml^–1 packed cells) is discussed. Optimal regeneration, with more than 50% of the protoplasts showing initial cell division, occurred when high inoculation densities (10⁶ protoplasts.ml^–1) or nurse cultures were applied. Under these conditions, the frequency of microcolony formation was 20–40%. These microcolonies developed directly, without an intervening callus phase, into somatic embryos which later germinated and formed plantlets.     

Comparative study of RNA metabolism in freshly isolated protoplasts and callus cultures of Parthenocissus tricuspidata crown gall

RNA metabolism was compared in protoplasts and cells of Parthenocissus tricuspidata crown gall callus. A rapid increase in the permeability to precursors during the first three hours following the termination of protoplast isolation was observed. Consequently, RNA synthesis occurred at a higher rate in protoplasts than in whole cells. On the other hand, protoplasts and callus tissues showed similar kinetics of incorporation of precursors into mature rRNA's. Pulse-chase experiments showed the maturation rate to be nearly the same in both cases.