Raman Spectroscopy Analysis of Botryococcene Hydrocarbons from the Green Microalga Botryococcus braunii

Botryococcus braunii, B race is a unique green microalga that produces large amounts of liquid hydrocarbons known as botryococcenes that can be used as a fuel for internal combustion engines. The simplest botryococcene (C₃₀) is metabolized by methylation to give intermediates of C₃₁, C₃₂, C₃₃, and C₃₄, with C₃₄ being the predominant botryococcene in some strains. In the present work we have used Raman spectroscopy to characterize the structure of botryococcenes in an attempt to identify and localize botryococcenes within B. braunii cells. The spectral region from 1600–1700 cm⁻¹ showed ν(C=C) stretching bands specific for botryococcenes. Distinct botryococcene Raman bands at 1640 and 1647 cm⁻¹ were assigned to the stretching of the C=C bond in the botryococcene branch and the exomethylene C=C bonds produced by the methylations, respectively. A Raman band at 1670 cm⁻¹ was assigned to the backbone C=C bond stretching. Density function theory calculations were used to determine the Raman spectra of all botryococcenes to compare computed theoretical values with those observed. The analysis showed that the ν(C=C) stretching bands at 1647 and 1670 cm⁻¹ are actually composed of several closely spaced bands arising from the six individual C=C bonds in the molecule. We also used confocal Raman microspectroscopy to map the presence and location of methylated botryococcenes within a colony of B. braunii cells based on the methylation-specific 1647 cm⁻¹ botryococcene Raman shift.     

Towards the characterization of squalene synthase activity in extracts of Zymomonas mobilis

Abstract Extracts of Zymomonas mobilis in the presence of NADPH converted tritium-labelled farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) into squalene, resulting from the activity of squalene synthase, as well as diploptene and diplopterol, derived from further squalene cyclisation. An unidentified isoprenoid representing up to 70% of the conversion products of FPP and different from presqualene alcohol was also formed, even in the absence of NADPH. Addition of squalestatin 1, an inhibitor of squalene synthase, blocked biosynthesis from FPP of the three former triterpenes, in accordance with the role of squalene synthase in their formation, as well as that of the unknown compound.     

In silico analysis of squalene synthase in Fabaceae family using bioinformatics tools

Triterpenoid saponins are a diverse group of bioactive compounds, which are used for possessing of many biomedical and pharmaceutical products. Generally, squalene synthase (SQS) is defined as an emerging and essential branch point enzyme far from the major pathway of isoprenoids biosynthetic and a latent adjusting point, which manages carbon flux into triterpenes biosynthesis and sterols. The present study deals with the detailed characterization of SQS by bioinformatics approaches to evaluate physicochemical properties, structural characteristics including secondary and 3D structure prediction and functional analysis from eight plants related to Fabaceae family and Arabidopsis thaliana. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that SQS proteins have two transmembrane regions in the C-terminal. The predicted motifs were used to design universal degenerate primers for PCR analysis and other molecular applications. Phylogenetic analysis showed conserved regions at different stretches with maximum homology in amino acid residues within all SQSs. The secondary structure prediction results showed that the amino acid sequence of all squalene synthases had α helix and random coil as the main components. The reliability of the received model was confirmed using the ProSA and RAMPAGE programs. Determining of active site by CASTp proposes the possibility of using this protein as probable medication target. The findings of the present study may be useful for further assessments on characterization and cloning of squalene synthase.     

Occurrence of sucrose and sucrose metabolizing enzymes in achlorophyllous algae

The presence of sucrose and the enzymes related to sucrose metabolism, i.e. sucrose synthase (SS) (UDP-glucose: D-fructose-2-glucosyl transferase, EC 2.4.1.13), sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) (UDP-glucose: D-fructose-6-phosphate-2-glucosyl transferase, EC 2.4.1.14) and invertase (β-D-fructofuranoside fructohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.26) was demonstrated in Prototheca zopfii, a colorless alga. The levels of enzyme activities were lower than those obtained in Chlorella vulgaris, which is generally considered the photosynthetic counterpart of P. zopfii. Whem enzyme activities were measured in bleached cells of C. vulgaris, the levels were of the same order than those found in P. zopfii. These results would indicate that the sucrose metabolizing enzymes are not related to the algae ability to carry on photosynthesis.     

Isolation and Characterization of Two Squalene Epoxidase Genes from Botryococcus braunii,Race B

The B race of the green microalga Botryococcus braunii produces triterpene hydrocarbons, botryococcenes and methylsqualenes that can be processed into jet fuels with high heating values. In this alga, squalene is also converted into membrane sterols after 2,3-epoxidation. In the present study, cDNA clones of two distinct squalene epoxidases (BbSQE-I and -II) were isolated. Predicted amino acid sequences encoded on these genes are 45% identical with each other. Introduction of BbSQE-I or -II into Saccharomyces cerevisie erg1 mutants resulted in the complementation of ergosterol auxotrophy. The relative expression level of SQE-II increased 3.5-fold from the early stage to the middle phase of a culture period of 42 days, while that of SQE-I was almost constant throughout the culture period. Southern blot analyses suggested that these genes are single-copied genes. This is the first report on the isolation of functional SQEs that are encoded in duplicated loci in the algal genome.     

Selective Inhibition of Cholesterol Biosynthesis in Brain Cells by Squalestatin 1

Abstract: The effect of squalestatin 1 (SQ) on squalene synthase and other enzymes utilizing farnesyl pyrophosphate (F-P-P) as substrate was evaluated by in vitro enzymological and in vivo metabolic labeling experiments to determine if the drug selectively inhibited cholesterol biosynthesis in brain cells. Direct in vitro enzyme studies with membrane fractions from primary cultures of embryonic rat brain (IC₅₀ = 37 n M ), pig brain (IC₅₀ = 21 n M ), and C6 glioma cells (IC₅₀ = 35 n M ) demonstrated that SQ potently inhibited squalene synthase activity but had no effect on the long-chain cis -isoprenyltransferase catalyzing the conversion of F-P-P to polyprenyl pyrophosphate (Poly-P-P), the precursor of dolichyl phosphate (Dol-P). SQ also had no effect on F-P-P synthase; the conversion of [³H]F-P-P to geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GG-P-P) catalyzed by partially purified GG-P-P synthase from bovine brain; the enzymatic farnesylation of recombinant H-p21 ^ras by rat brain farnesyltransferase; or the enzymatic geranylgeranylation of recombinant Rab1A, catalyzed by rat brain geranylgeranyltransferase. Consistent with SQ selectively blocking the synthesis of squalene, when C6 glial cells were metabolically labeled with [³H]mevalonolactone, the drug inhibited the incorporation of the labeled precursor into squalene and cholesterol (IC₅₀ = 3–5 µ M ) but either had no effect or slightly stimulated the labeling of Dol-P, ubiquinone (CoQ), and isoprenylated proteins. These results indicate that SQ blocks cholesterol biosynthesis in brain cells by selectively inhibiting squalene synthase. Thus, SQ provides a useful tool for evaluating the obligatory requirement for de novo cholesterol biosynthesis in neurobiological processes without interfering with other critical reactions involving F-P-P.     

麻疯树鲨烯合酶基因SQS的克隆及生物信息学分析

以麻疯树(Jatropha curcas L.)总RNA为模板,根据已报道的鲨烯合酶基因序列设计简并引物,用RACE方法克隆得到麻疯树鲨烯合酶基因全长cDNA,命名为JcSQS。JcSQS全长1609 bp,包含1个1242 bp的开放阅读框,预测麻疯树鲨烯合酶基因编码的蛋白含有413个氨基酸。JcSQS具有鲨烯合酶类的保守结构域,JcSQS 蛋白与蓖麻、柿、木榄等植物中SQS基因编码的氨基酸序列具有高度同源性。这为研究麻疯树萜烯类物质的生物合成和调控机制奠定了基础。     

Transformation of Lipid Bodies Related to Hydrocarbon Accumulation in a Green Alga,Botryococcus braunii (Race B)

The colonial microalga Botryococcus braunii accumulates large quantities of hydrocarbons mainly in the extracellular space; most other oleaginous microalgae store lipids in the cytoplasm. Botryococcus braunii is classified into three principal races (A, B, and L) based on the types of hydrocarbons. Race B has attracted the most attention as an alternative to petroleum by its higher hydrocarbon contents than the other races and its hydrocarbon components, botryococcenes and methylsqualenes, both can be readily converted into biofuels. We studied race B using fluorescence and electron microscopy, and clarify the stage when extracellular hydrocarbon accumulation occurs during the cell cycle, in a correlation with the behavior and structural changes of the lipid bodies and discussed development of the algal colony. New accumulation of lipids on the cell surface occurred after cell division in the basolateral region of daughter cells. While lipid bodies were observed throughout the cell cycle, their size and inclusions were dynamically changing. When cells began dividing, the lipid bodies increased in size and inclusions until the extracellular accumulation of lipids started. Most of the lipids disappeared from the cytoplasm concomitant with the extracellular accumulation, and then reformed. We therefore hypothesize that lipid bodies produced during the growth of B. braunii are related to lipid secretion. New lipids secreted at the cell surface formed layers of oil droplets, to a maximum depth of six layers, and fused to form flattened, continuous sheets. The sheets that combined a pair of daughter cells remained during successive cellular divisions and the colony increased in size with increasing number of cells.     

Hormonal Control of Sucrose Phosphate Synthase and Sucrose Synthase in Sugar Beet

We studied the effects of synthetic analogs of phytohormones (benzyladenine, IAA, and GA) on the activities of the enzymes catalyzing sucrose synthesis and metabolism, sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS, EC 2.4.1.14) and sucrose synthase (SS, EC 2.4.1.13), and on the content of chlorophyll and protein during the sugar-beet (Beta vulgaris L.) ontogeny. Plant spraying with phytohormonal preparations activated SPS in leaves; direct interaction between phytohormones and the enzyme also increased its activity. The degree of this activation differed during the ontogeny and in dependence on the compound used for treatment. Analogs of phytohormones maintained high protein level in leaves, retarded chlorophyll breakdown, and, thus, prolonged leaf functional activity during development. Phytohormonal preparations practically did not affect the SS activity both after plant treatment and at their direct interaction with the enzyme. It is supposed that the SS activity in sugar-beet roots is controlled by sucrose synthesized in leaves rather than by phytohormones. The effects of hormones on leaf metabolism were mainly manifested in growth activation.     

HPLC method for the determination of phytochelatin synthase activity specific for soft metal ion chelators

Phytochelatins (PCs) are nonprotein peptides with the general structure (γ-Glu-Cys)_n-Gly (PC_n), where n is greater than or equal to 2. They are synthesized through a reaction catalyzed by phytochelatin synthase (PCS) in the presence of metal cations and using the tripeptide glutathione (γ-Glu-Cys-Gly) and/or previously synthesized PC_n as the substrate. Here, a highly sensitive assay for PCS activity was devised, in which the dequenching of Cu(I)-bathocuproinedisulfonate complexes was used in the detection system of a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatograph. Using recombinant PCS from the higher plant Arabidopsis thaliana (rAtPCS1), this assay system was capable of determining PCS activity based on an amount of the enzyme preparation that was 100-fold less than that required for the 5,5′-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) assay method. Although adsorption of the enzyme onto the reaction vessel hindered accurate activity determination, the inclusion of bovine serum albumin successfully resolved this issue. This method is a powerful tool for investigating PCS enzyme mechanisms with respect to the roles of metal ions.     

In Silico Analog Design for Terbinafine Against Trichophyton rubrum: A Preliminary Study

The diseases caused by dermatophytes are common among several other infections which cause serious threat to human health. It is evident that enzyme squalene epoxidase is responsible for prolonged dermatophyte infection and it is appealing to note that this enzyme is also responsible for fatty acid synthesis in these groups of fungi. In the present study, terbinafine drug which targets enzyme squalene epoxidase has been explored to design its various novel analogues. The present study suggests that many more prominent drug analogues could be constituted which may be crucial towards designing new drug candidates. In the present study, we have designed a series of such analogues viz. [(2E)-6,6-dimethylhept-2-en-4-yn-1-yl](methyl)(naphthalen-1-ylmethyl)amine, N-[8-({[(2E)-6,6-dimethylhept-2-en-4-yn-1-yl](methyl)amino}methyl)naphthalen-1-yl]-2-(sulfoamino) acetamide, {[4-(dihydroxyamino)-8-({[(2E)-6,6-dimethylhept-2-en-4-yn-1-yl](methyl)amino}methyl)naphthalen-1-yl]sulfanyl}methanol and (R)-{[4-({[(2E,6R)-6,7-dimethyloct-2-en-4-yn-1-yl](methyl)amino}methyl)-5-[(hydroxysulfamoyl)amino]naphthalen-1-yl]amino}sulfinic acid. Moreover, further by molecular docking approach the binding between enzyme and designed analogues was further analysed. The present preliminary report suggested a considerably good docking interaction score of −338.75 kcal/mol between terbinafine and squalene epoxidase from Trichophyton rubrum. This preliminary study implies that few designed candidate ligands can be effectual towards the activity of this enzyme and can play crucial role in pathogenesis control of T. rubrum.     

Characterization of olivetol synthase, a polyketide synthase putatively involved in cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway

Alkylresorcinol moieties of cannabinoids are derived from olivetolic acid (OLA), a polyketide metabolite. However, the polyketide synthase (PKS) responsible for OLA biosynthesis has not been identified. In the present study, a cDNA encoding a novel PKS, olivetol synthase (OLS), was cloned from Cannabis sativa. Recombinant OLS did not produce OLA, but synthesized olivetol, the decarboxylated form of OLA, as the major reaction product. Interestingly, it was also confirmed that the crude enzyme extracts from flowers and rapidly expanding leaves, the cannabinoid-producing tissues of C. sativa, also exhibited olivetol-producing activity, suggesting that the native OLS is functionally expressed in these tissues. The possibility that OLS could be involved in OLA biosynthesis was discussed based on its catalytic properties and expression profile.     

Engineering linear,branched‐chain triterpene metabolism in monocots

Triterpenes are thirty‐carbon compounds derived from the universal five‐carbon prenyl precursors isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). Normally, triterpenes are synthesized via the mevalonate (MVA) pathway operating in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes where DMAPP is condensed with two IPPs to yield farnesyl diphosphate (FPP), catalyzed by FPP synthase (FPS). Squalene synthase (SQS) condenses two molecules of FPP to generate the symmetrical product squalene, the first committed precursor to sterols and most other triterpenes. In the green algae Botryococcus braunii, two FPP molecules can also be condensed in an asymmetric manner yielding the more highly branched triterpene, botryococcene. Botryococcene is an attractive molecule because of its potential as a biofuel and petrochemical feedstock. Because B. braunii, the only native host for botryococcene biosynthesis, is difficult to grow, there have been efforts to move botryococcene biosynthesis into organisms more amenable to large‐scale production. Here, we report the genetic engineering of the model monocot, Brachypodium distachyon, for botryococcene biosynthesis and accumulation. A subcellular targeting strategy was used, directing the enzymes (botryococcene synthase [BS] and FPS) to either the cytosol or the plastid. High titres of botryococcene (>1 mg/g FW in T₀ mature plants) were obtained using the cytosolic‐targeting strategy. Plastid‐targeted BS + FPS lines accumulated botryococcene (albeit in lesser amounts than the cytosolic BS + FPS lines), but they showed a detrimental phenotype dependent on plastid‐targeted FPS, and could not proliferate and survive to set seed under phototrophic conditions. These results highlight intriguing differences in isoprenoid metabolism between dicots and monocots.     

Directed evolution of squalene synthase for dehydrosqualene biosynthesis

Squalene synthase (SQS) catalyzes the first step of sterol/hopanoid biosynthesis in various organisms. It has been long recognized that SQSs share a common ancestor with carotenoid synthases, but it is not known how these enzymes selectively produce their own product. In this study, SQSs from yeast, human, and bacteria were independently subjected to directed evolution for the production of the C₃₀ carotenoid backbone, dehydrosqualene. This was accomplished via high-throughput screening with Pantoea ananatis phytoene desaturase, which can selectively convert dehydrosqualene into yellow carotenoid pigments. Genetic analysis of the resultant mutants revealed various mutations that could effectively convert SQS into a “dehydrosqualene synthase.” All of these mutations are clustered around the residues that have been proposed to be important for NADPH binding.     

Cloning, expression and characterization of squalene synthase from Inonotus obliquus

The chaga mushroom Inonotus obliquus has been widely used as a folk medicine in Russia, Poland and most of the Baltic countries. The total triterpene saponins of I. obliquus have significant pharmacological activity. Though the triterpene component has been well characterized in terms of its pharmaceutical activity, there is little information on the genes responsible for the biosynthesis of these compounds in I. obliquus. Squalene synthase represents a potential branching point and the first committed step to diverge the carbon flux from the main isoprenoid pathway towards sterol biosynthesis. In this study, we cloned and characterized squalene synthase from I. obliquus. A 1476-bp full-length cDNA consisting of the entire coding region of squalene synthase (GenBank accession number is KC182754) was cloned by RT-PCR. The DNA sequence showed as much as 76 % similarity with the sequence of Fomitiporia mediterranea squalene synthase, and phylogenetic analysis indicated that it is most closely related to F. mediterranea squalene synthase at both DNA and protein levels. I. obliquus squalene synthase was actively expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris as a secreted form and purified by gel filtration using Superdex G-75 column. The purified recombinant squalene synthase was able to convert farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) to squalene in an NADPH-dependent reaction. The result of this study could serve as an important step toward the manipulation of triterpenoids biosynthesis in I. obliquus at the level of squalene through engineering better SQS for reintroduction into the mushroom.     

Pyruvate decarboxylase activity of the acetohydroxyacid synthase of Thermotoga maritima

Acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) catalyzes the production of acetolactate from pyruvate. The enzyme from the hyperthermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima has been purified and characterized (k_cat ~100 s^?1). It was found that the same enzyme also had the ability to catalyze the production of acetaldehyde and CO₂ from pyruvate, an activity of pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) at a rate approximately 10% of its AHAS activity. Compared to the catalytic subunit, reconstitution of the individually expressed and purified catalytic and regulatory subunits of the AHAS stimulated both activities of PDC and AHAS. Both activities had similar pH and temperature profiles with an optimal pH of 7.0 and temperature of 85 °C. The enzyme kinetic parameters were determined, however, it showed a non-Michaelis-Menten kinetics for pyruvate only. This is the first report on the PDC activity of an AHAS and the second bifunctional enzyme that might be involved in the production of ethanol from pyruvate in hyperthermophilic microorganisms.     

Specificity and mutational analysis of the metal-dependent 3-deoxy-d-manno-octulosonate 8-phosphate synthase from Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

3-Deoxy-d-manno-octulosonate 8-phosphate synthase (KDO8PS) catalyzes the reaction between phosphoenol pyruvate and d-arabinose 5-phosphate to generate KDO8P. This reaction is part of the biosynthetic pathway to 3-deoxy-d-manno-octulosonate, a component of the lipopolysaccharide of the Gram-negative bacterial cell wall. Two distinct groups of KDO8PSs exist, differing by the absolute requirement of a divalent metal ion. In this study Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans KDO8PS has been expressed and purified and shown to require a divalent metal ion, with Mn²⁺, Co²⁺ and Cd²⁺ (in decreasing order) being able to restore activity to metal-free enzyme. Cd²⁺ significantly enhanced the stability of the enzyme, raising the T_m by 14 °C. d-Glucose 6-phosphate and d-erythrose 4-phosphate were not substrates for A. ferrooxidans KDO8PS, whereas 2-deoxy-d-ribose 5-phosphate was a poor substrate and there was negligible activity with d-ribose 5-phosphate. The ²⁴³AspGlyPro²⁴⁵ motif is absolutely conserved in the metal-independent group of synthases, but the Gly and Pro sites are variable in the metal-dependent enzymes. Substitution of the putative metal-binding Asp243 to Ala in A. ferrooxidans KDO8PS gave inactive enzyme, whereas substitutions Asp243Glu or Pro245Ala produced active enzymes with altered metal-dependency profiles. Prior studies indicated that exchange of a metal-binding Cys for Asn converts metal-dependent KDO8P synthase into a metal-independent form. Unexpectedly, this mutation in A. ferrooxidans KDO8P synthase (Cys21Asn) gave inactive enzyme. This finding, together with modest activity towards 2-deoxy-d-ribose 5-phosphate suggests similarities between the A. ferrooxidans KDO8PS and the related metal-dependent 3-deoxy-d-arabino-heptulosonate phosphate synthase, and highlights the importance of the AspGlyPro loop in positioning the substrate for effective catalysis in all KDO8P synthases.     

刺五加内生青霉鲨烯合酶基因的克隆与序列分析

【目的】克隆刺五加内生青霉Penicillium minioluteum P116-1a的鲨烯合酶(Squalene synthase,SS)基因。【方法】采用cDNA 5末端快速扩增(Rapid Amplification ofcDNA 5 Ends,5 RACE)技术扩增P.minioluteum P116-1a SS基因的全长cDNA序列和DNA序列;运用生物信息学方法对该基因进行分析,预测其编码蛋白的结构与功能;并通过RT-PCR法和SDS-PAGE法检测SS的表达情况。【结果】P.minioluteum P116-1a的SS基因含有4个外显子和3个内含子,开放阅读框长1 416 bp,编码471个氨基酸,预测蛋白含67.73%的α螺旋,5.31%的延伸链,2.97%的β折叠,23.99%的无规则卷曲,含有鲨烯合酶和八氢番茄红素合成酶的特异性识别区域,定位于内质网膜。与P.marneffei和Talaromyces stipitatus中SS蛋白的氨基酸同源性达90%以上。不同温度下SS的表达情况不同。【结论】首次在刺五加内生青霉P.minioluteum P116-1a中克隆到SS基因,为进一步研究P.minioluteum P116-1a提高刺五加皂苷含量的机制奠定基础。