Proteomic approach to probe for larval proteins of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

A proteomic approach was used to search for larval proteins specific to the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis from Galicia in northwest Spain. The study included both a comparative analysis, through two-dimensional electrophoresis, of protein expression maps of the larvae of the mussel and of 5 abundant and commercially important bivalve species from the region (Ostrea edulis, Cerastoderma edule, Pecten maximus, Tapes decussatus, and Venarupis pullastra) and subsequent mass spectrometric analysis of some of the protein spots. A total of 18 spots were selected and isolated from gels of M. galloprovincialis larvae. From their relative position on the electrophoresis gels, 6 of these were clearly exclusive to the mussel species. However, it was not clear whether the other spots were shared by other species. To overcome this ambiguity, first an analysis using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization with time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) was conducted on the 6 spots of Mytilus that could possibly be shared with only one species. The peptide mass fingerprinting was completely different for the proteins compared. This result confirmed that the 6 proteins were exclusively mussel proteins, but demonstrated the utility of this approach when working with species that are poorly represented at the protein level in databases.     

The metallothionein genes of Mytilus galloprovincialis: genomic organization, tissue expression and evolution

Recently, increasing interest has been directed to the study of metallothioneins (MTs), which are small proteins that are able to bind metal ions. The induction of MT synthesis after exposure to metal or other environmental contaminants in a large number of aquatic invertebrates makes these proteins good biomarkers in water monitoring programs. Within bivalves, the species Mytilus galloprovincialis and Mytilus edulis represent model organisms for these types of studies, as well as for molecular studies regarding the expression and characterization of MT encoding genes. In the present paper, we focused on the genomic characterization, evolutionary, and tissue-expression analyses of the MT-10, MT-10 Intronless, and MT-20 genes in M. galloprovincialis. The comparison of the genomic sequences showed the presence of long nucleotide stretches within the introns of the MT genes that are conserved between M. galloprovincialis and M. edulis. These non-coding conserved sequences may contain regulatory motifs. Real-Time RT-PCR experiments revealed that, at the basal conditions, the MT-10 and MT-10 Intronless genes are expressed at levels considerably higher than the MT-20 gene, mainly in the digestive gland and gill tissue. The strong induction of the MT-20 gene expression detected in a field-collected sample is associated with the up-regulation of both the MT-10 and MT-10 Intronless genes. Evolutionary analysis revealed signals of localized positive selection that, together with the tissue-expression data, support a possible functional diversification between the MTs encoded by the MT-10 and MT-10 Intronless genes.     

Neospora caninum: comparative gene expression profiling of Neospora caninum wild type and a temperature sensitive clone

To understand the genetic basis of virulence, gene expression profiles of a temperature-sensitive clone (NCts-8, relatively avirulent) and its wild type (NC-1) of Neospora caninum were characterized and compared using a high-density microarray with approximately 63,000 distinct oligonucleotides. This microarray consists of 5692 unique N. caninum sequences, including 1980 Tentative Consensus sequences and 3712 singleton ESTs from the TIGR N. caninum Gene Index (NCGI, release 5.0). Each sequence was represented by 11 distinct 60mer oligonucleotides synthesized in situ on the microarray. The results showed that 111 genes were significantly repressed and no up-regulated genes were identified in the NCts-8 clone. The level of 10 randomly selected genes from the repressed genes was confirmed using real-time RT-PCR. Of the 111 repressed genes, 58 were hypothetical protein products and 53 were annotated genes. Over 70% of the repressed genes identified in this study are clustered on five chromosomes (I, VII, VIII, X and XII). These results suggest that the down-regulated genes may be in part responsible for the reduced pathogenesis of NCts-8; further characterization of the regulated genes may aid in understanding of molecular basis of virulence and development of countermeasures against neosporosis.     

Structure, organization and expression of the metallothionein gene family inArabidopsis

Metallothioneins (MTs) are cysteine-rich proteins required for heavy metal tolerance in animals and fungi. Recent results indicate that plants also possess functional metallothionein genes. Here we report the cloning and characterization of five metallothionein genes fromArabidopsis thaliana. The position of the single intron in each gene is conserved. The proteins encoded by these genes can be divided into two groups (MT1 and MT2) based on the presence or absence of a central domain separating two cysteine-rich domains. Four of the MT genes (MT1a,MT1c,MT2a andMT2b) are transcribed inArabidopsis. Several lines of evidence suggest that the fifth gene,MT1b, is inactive. There is differential regulation of the MT gene family. MT1 mRNA is expressed highly in roots, moderately in leaves and is barely detected in inflorescences and siliques. MT2a and MT2b mRNAs are more abundant in leaves, inflorescences and in roots from mature plants, but are also detected in roots of young plants, and in siliques. MT2a mRNA is strongly induced in seedlings by CUSO₄, whereas MT2b mRNA is relatively abundant in this tissue and levels increase only slightly upon exposure to copper.MT1a andMT1c are located within 2 kb of each other and have been mapped to chromosome 1.MT1b andMT2b map to separate loci on chromosome V, andMT2a is located on chromosome III. The locations of these MT genes are different from that ofCAD1, a gene involved in cadmium tolerance inArabidopsis.     

Development of PLEX, a plasmid-based expression system for production of heterologous gene products by the gram-positive bacteria Streptococcus gordonii

While Escherichia coli expression systems have been widely utilized for the production of heterologous proteins, these systems have limitations with regard to the production of particular protein products, including poor expression, expression of insoluble proteins into inclusion bodies, and/or expression of a truncated product. Using the surface protein expression (SPEX) system, chromosomally integrated heterologous genes are expressed and secreted into media by the naturally competent gram-positive organism Streptococcus gordonii. After E. coli turned out to be an inappropriate expression system to produce sufficient quantities of intact product, we successfully utilized SPEX to produce the heterologous antigen BH4XCRR that is designed from sequences homologous to the S. pyogenes M-protein C-repeat region. To further enhance production of this product by S. gordonii, we sought to develop a novel system for the production and secretion of heterologous proteins. We observed that under various growth conditions, S. gordonii secreted high levels of a 172 kDa protein, which was identified by N-terminal sequence analysis as the glucosyltransferase GTF. Here we report on the development of a plasmid-based expression system, designated as PLEX, which we used to enhance production of BH4XCRR by S. gordonii. A region from the S. gordonii chromosome that contains the positive regulatory gene rgg, putative gtfG promoter, and gtfG secretion-signal sequence was cloned into the E. coli/Streptococcus shuttle plasmid pVA838. Additionally, the bh4xcrr structural gene was cloned into the same plasmid downstream and in-frame with rgg and gtfG. This plasmid construct was transformed into S. gordonii and BH4XCRR was detected in culture supernatants from transformants at greater concentrations than in supernatants from a SPEX strain expressing the same product. BH4XCRR was easily purified from culture supernatant using a scalable two-step purification process involving hydrophobic-interaction and gel-filtration chromatography.     

Immunocytochemical demonstration of neurotransmitters in the nerve plexuses of the foot and the anterior byssus retractor muscle of the mussel,Mytilus galloprovincialis

Summary Immunocytochemical methods were applied to study the distribution of putative neurotransmitters (5-HT, substance P, GABA, glutamate and aspartate) in the nerve plexuses of the foot and the anterior byssus retractor muscle (ABRM) of Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mollusca, Bivalvia). The foot presents extensive nerve plexuses containing 5-HT and substance P-like immunoreactive material with a similar distribution beneath the surface epithelium, around the vessels and in the glandular regions. Coexistence of the two putative neurotransmitters was observed in a few nerve fibers, Conversely, muscle fibers, both in the foot and in the ABRM, are innervated only by 5-HT-positive fibers, while substance P-like material is present only in the networks of the ABRM epimysial sheath. Immunoreactivity for glutamate and aspartate was not demonstrated, while rare GABA-positive nerve cells and fibers were found only in the foot. The results of this investigation provide a morphological background to previous physiological studies on 5-HT in the nervous system of bivalve molluscs. Moreover, they confirm that the nervous system of Mytilus contains a remarkable amount of a substance related to the vertebrate tachykinin family.     

Control of Distal-less expression in the Drosophila appendages by functional 3' enhancers

The expression of the Hox gene Distal-less (Dll) directs the development of appendages in a wide variety of animals. In Drosophila, its expression is subjected to a complex developmental control. In the present work we have studied a 17 kb genomic region in the Dll locus which lies downstream of the coding sequence and found control elements of primary functional importance for the expression of Dll in the leg and in other tissues. Of particular interest is a control element, which we have called LP, which drives expression of Dll in the leg primordium from early embryonic development, and whose deletion causes severe truncation and malformation of the adult leg. This is the first Dll enhancer for which, in addition to the ability to drive expression of a reporter, a role can be demonstrated in the expression of the endogenous Dll gene and in the development of the leg. In addition, our results suggest that some enhancers, contrary to the widely accepted notion, may require a specific 5′ or 3′ position with respect to the transcribed region.     

Structure, expression, and functional analysis of the hexokinase gene family in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Hexokinase (HXK) is a dual-function enzyme that both phosphorylates hexose to form hexose 6−phosphate and plays an important role in sugar sensing and signaling. To investigate the roles of hexokinases in rice growth and development, we analyzed rice sequence databases and isolated ten rice hexokinase cDNAs, OsHXK1 (Oryza sativa Hexokinase 1) through OsHXK10. With the exception of the single-exon gene OsHXK1, the OsHXKs all have a highly conserved genomic structure consisting of nine exons and eight introns. Gene expression profiling revealed that OsHXK2 through OsHXK9 are expressed ubiquitously in various organs, whereas OsHXK10 expression is pollen-specific. Sugars induced the expression of three OsHXKs, OsHXK2, OsHXK5, and OsHXK6, in excised leaves, while suppressing OsHXK7 expression in excised leaves and immature seeds. The hexokinase activity of the OsHXKs was confirmed by functional complementation of the hexokinase-deficient yeast strain YSH7.4-3C (hxk1, hxk2, glk1). OsHXK4 was able to complement this mutant only after the chloroplast-transit peptide was removed. The subcellular localization of OsHXK4 and OsHXK7, observed with green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion constructs, indicated that OsHXK4 is a plastid-stroma-targeted hexokinase while OsHXK7 localizes to the cytosol.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

松材线虫galectin-1基因的克隆、原核表达和表达模式分析

【目的】galectin-1是凝集素的一种,广泛存在于各种生物体内,在生长发育、免疫调节方面起重要作用。本研究克隆和表达了松材线虫的galectin-1蛋白,并分析了各个龄期的表达量。【方法】设计引物,扩增松材线虫的galectin-1基因,使用双酶切的方法连接p ET-28a载体和目的基因,转化到大肠杆菌DH5α感受态细胞,筛选阳性克隆;在不同温度下,用不同浓度的异丙基-β-D-硫代半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导表达,Western blot检验蛋白表达情况;采用RT-PCR技术检验松材线虫各个龄期galectin-1基因的表达情况。【结果】由SMART和Predict Protein软件分析可知,该蛋白有2个结构域,并且主要由无规卷曲和β折叠构成;生物学信息分析显示,松材线虫的galectin-1与小卷蛾斯氏线虫的相似性更高;与日本血吸虫相比,线虫能很好地聚集在一个分支上。Western blot检测纯化蛋白大小与查询所得蛋白分子质量一致。RT-q PCR结果显示,以繁殖型2龄松材线虫(L_2)为对照,galectin-1基因在繁殖型3龄(L_3)、繁殖型4龄(L_4)、扩散型3龄(L_(Ⅲ))和扩散型4龄(L_(Ⅳ))松材线虫中的表达量高,尤其是在LⅢ中的表达量最高;雌雄成虫没有显著性差异。【结论】松材线虫的galectin-1基因在p ET-28a原核表达系统中呈可溶性表达,在不同龄期的表达量有差异。本研究为进一步研究松材线虫的galectin-1基因奠定了基础,为松材线虫的防治提供了新的方向。     

Molecular cloning,characterization, and expression of a cDNA encoding an endochitinase gene from the mycoparasite Stachybotrys elegans

Stachybotrys elegans is a mycoparasite of the soilborne plant pathogenic fungus Rhizoctonia solani. The mycoparasitic activity of S. elegans is correlated with the production of cell wall degrading enzymes such as chitinases. This report details the cloning by RACE-PCR and characterization of a full-length cDNA clone, sechi44, that appears to encode an extracellular endochitinase. An analysis of the sechi44 sequence indicates that this gene contains a 1269-bp ORF and encodes a 423-aa polypeptide. The SECHI44 protein has a calculated molecular weight of 44.1kDa and pI of 5.53. Since the SECHI44 protein also appears to encode a signal peptide, an extracellular location for the corresponding protein is predicted. Comparison of SECHI44 sequence with known sequences of fungal endochitinases revealed that SECHI44 is grouped with endochitinases from other mycoparasites. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed an elevated level of expression of sechi44 (21-fold) in chitin-rich (induced) as compared to no-carbon (non-induced) culture conditions. In dual culture, the temporal expression of sechi44 increased after 2 days of contact with R. solani, reaching a 10-fold increase after 9 days, followed by a decrease to basic expression level at 12 days. Interestingly, inhibition of sechi44 expression was observed when S. elegans hyphae were in close proximity with R. solani hyphae.     

蓖麻RcACA基因家族鉴定及非生物胁迫下表达模式分析

自抑制Ca^(2+)-ATPase酶(auto-inhibited Ca2+-ATPase,ACA)作为Ca2+-ATPase的亚家族之一,在植物细胞内维持Ca2+浓度平衡发挥着重要的作用。为探究蓖麻(Ricinus communis)RcACA基因家族的功能及基因表达模式,文中采用生物信息学手段鉴定蓖麻RcACA基因家族成员,预测分析了其基础的理化性质、亚细胞位置、蛋白的二级和三级结构、保守域、保守基序、基因结构、染色体位置及共线关系、进化特征、启动子顺式作用元件,并通过蓖麻转录组数据中的表达量(fragments per kilobase of exon model per million mapped fragments,FPKM)分析RcACA基因在非生物胁迫下的表达模式。结果表明,在蓖麻中共鉴定到8个RcACA基因家族成员,均是酸性蛋白且定位在细胞质膜;所有蛋白的二级和三级结构中α-螺旋和不规则卷曲较多;RcACA基因被聚为3类,同一类别中基因的结构与保守基序相似;均有典型的4个结构域RcACA3–RcACA8,还有1个Ca^(2+)-ATPase N端自抑制结构域(N-terminal autoinhibitory domain);RcACA基因多位于染色体长臂,拥有2对共线关系。RcACA基因编码区上游拥有较多的光响应作用元件,激素诱导类作用元件较少。种间聚类显示ACA基因在物种间的进化是保守的。组织表达模式分析显示,RcACA基因拥有明显的组织表达特异性,且多数基因在雄花中表达量最高;非生物胁迫表达分析表明,RcACA2–RcACA8在高盐和干旱胁迫下均上调表达,RcACA1在低温胁迫的0–24 h上调表达,表明RcACA基因积极地响应非生物胁迫。上述结果为探究RcACA基因在蓖麻生长发育和逆境胁迫中的作用提供了理论参考。