Salmonella typhimurium strains carrying independent mutations display similar virulence phenotypes yet are controlled by distinct host defense mechanisms

The outcome of Salmonella infection in the mammalian host favors whoever succeeds best in disturbing the equilibrium between coordinate expression of bacterial (virulence) genes and host defense mechanisms. Intracellular persistence in host cells is critical for pathogenesis and disease, because Salmonella typhimurium strains defective in this property are avirulent. We examined whether similar host defense mechanisms are required for growth control of two S. typhimurium mutant strains. Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI2) and virulence plasmid-cured Salmonella mutants display similar virulence phenotypes in immunocompetent mice, yet their gene loci participate in independent virulence strategies. We determined the role of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma as well as different T cell populations in infection with these Salmonella strains. After systemic infection, IFN-gamma was essential for growth restriction of plasmid-cured S. typhimurium, while SPI2 mutant infections were controlled in the absence of IFN-gamma. TNFRp55-deficiency restored systemic virulence to both Salmonella mutants. After oral inoculation, control of plasmid-cured bacteria substantially relied on both IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha signaling while control of SPI2 mutants did not. However, for both mutants, ultimate clearance of bacteria from infected mice depended on alphabeta T cells.     

The invasion-associated type III secretion system of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is necessary for intracellular proliferation and vacuole biogenesis in epithelial cells

Type III secretion systems (TTSS) are used by Gram-negative pathogens to translocate proteins into eukaryotic host cells. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) has two of these specialized systems, which are encoded on separate Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPI-1 and SPI-2) and translocate unique sets of effectors. The specific roles of these systems in Salmonella pathogenesis remain undefined, although SPI-1 is required for bacterial invasion of epithelial cells and SPI-2 for survival/replication in phagocytic cells. However, because SPI-1 TTSS mutants are invasion-incompetent, the role of this TTSS in post-invasion processes has not been investigated. In this study, we have used two distinct methods to internalize a non-invasive SPI-1 TTSS mutant (invA) into cultured epithelial cells: (i) co-internalization with wild-type S. Typhimurium (SPI-1-dependent) and (ii) complementation with the Yersinia pseudotuberculosis invasin (inv) gene (SPI-1-independent). In both cases, internalized invA mutants were unable to replicate intracellularly, indicating that SPI-1 effectors are essential for this process and cannot be complemented by wild-type bacteria in the same cell. Analysis of the biogenesis of SCVs showed that vacuoles containing mutant bacteria displayed abnormal maturation that was dependent on the mechanism of entry. Manipulation of Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV) biogenesis by pharmacologically perturbing membrane trafficking in the host cell increased intracellular replication of wild-type but not mutant S. Typhimurium This demonstrates a previously unknown role for SPI-1 in vacuole biogenesis and intracellular survival in non-phagocytic cells.     

The development of a FACS-based strategy for the isolation of Shigella flexneri mutants that are deficient in intercellular spread

In the disease course of bacillary dysentery, pathogenic Shigella flexneri invade colonic epithelial cells and spread both within and between host cells. The ability to spread intercellularly allows the organism to infect an entire epithelial layer without significant contact with the extracellular milieu. Using fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS)-based technology, we developed a rapid and powerful selection strategy for the isolation of S. flexneri mutants that are unable to spread from cell to cell. The majority of mutants identified using this strategy harbour mutations that affect the structure of their lipopolysaccharide or the ability of the bacteria to move intracellularly via actin-based motility; both factors have previously been shown to be essential for cell-to-cell spread. However, using a modified strategy that eliminated both of these types of mutants, we identified several mutants that provide us with evidence that bacterial proteins of the type III secretion system, which are essential for bacterial entry into host cells, also play a role in cell-to-cell spread.     

Auxotrophy accounts for nodulation defect of most Sinorhizobium meliloti mutants in the branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis pathway

Some Sinorhizobium meliloti mutants in genes involved in isoleucine, valine, and leucine biosynthesis were previously described as being unable to induce nodule formation on host plants. Here, we present a reappraisal of the interconnection between the branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis pathway and the nodulation process in S. meliloti. We characterized the symbiotic phenotype of seven mutants that are auxotrophic for isoleucine, valine, or leucine in two closely related S. meliloti strains, 1021 and 2011. We showed that all mutants were similarly impaired for nodulation and infection of the Medicago sativa host plant. In most cases, the nodulation phenotype was fully restored by the addition of the missing amino acids to the plant growth medium. This strongly suggests that auxotrophy is the cause of the nodulation defect of these mutants. However, we confirmed previous findings that ilvC and ilvD2 mutants in the S. meliloti 1021 genetic background could not be restored to nodulation by supplementation with exogenous amino acids even though their Nod factor production appeared to be normal.     

Simian virus 40 large T antigen host range domain functions in virion assembly.

The simian virus 40 (SV40) T antigen host range mutants dl1066 and dl1140 display a postreplicative block to plaque formation which suggests a novel role for T antigen late in the viral life cycle. The host range mutants dl1066 and dl1140 are able to grow in and plaque on BSC but not on CV1 monkey kidney cells, a normally permissive host. Previous work showed that in CV1 cells infected with dl1066 and dl1140, levels of viral DNA replication and of late capsid protein accumulation were only slightly reduced and the failure to accumulate agnoprotein was not likely to be the major factor responsible for the mutants' growth defect. Here we show that the host range mutants are defective in the assembly of viral particles. SV40 assembly proceeds as the progressive conversion of 75S viral chromatin complexes to 200S-240S assembled virions. When virus-infected cell extracts are separated on 5 to 40% sucrose gradients, wild-type extracts show the greatest accumulation of viral late protein in the 200S-240S fractions corresponding to the assembled virus peak and lesser amounts in the 75S-150S fractions corresponding to immature assembly intermediates. The host range mutants dl1066 and dl1140 grown in nonpermissive CV1 cells, however, failed to assemble any appreciable amounts of mature 200S-240S virions and accumulate 75S intermediates, whereas in permissive BSC cells, levels of assembly were more slightly reduced than those of the wild type. Analysis of the protein composition of gradient fractions suggests that SV40 assembly proceeds by a mechanism similar to that proposed for polyomavirus and suggests that the host range blockage may result from a failure of such mutants to add VP1 to 75S assembly intermediates.     

Identification of host-specific colonization factors of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

The severity of infections caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium varies depending on the host species. Numerous virulence genes have been identified in S. Typhimurium, largely from studies in mice, but their roles in infections of other species remain unclear. In the most comprehensive survey of its kind, through the use of signature-tagged mutagenesis of S. Typhimurium we have identified mutants that were unable to colonize calf intestines, mutants unable to colonize chick intestines and mutants unable to colonize both species. The type three secretion systems encoded on Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs) 1 and 2 were required for efficient colonization of cattle. However, disruption of these secretion systems only caused a minor defect in S. Typhimurium colonization of chicks. Transposon insertions in SPI-4 compromised S. Typhimurium colonization of cattle, but not chicks. This is the first data confirming a role for SPI-4 in pathogenesis. We have also been able to ascribe a role in colonization for cell surface polysaccharides, cell envelope proteins, and many 'housekeeping' genes and genes of unknown function. We conclude that S. Typhimurium uses different strategies to colonize calves and chicks. This has major implications for vaccine design.     

The role of a stress-response protein in Salmonella typhimurium virulence

We recently described the use of selective transposon mutagenesis to generate a series of avirulent mutants of a pathogenic strain of Salmonella typhimurium. Cloning and sequencing of the insertion sites from two of these mutants reveals that both have identical locations within an open reading frame that is highly homologous to a gene, htrA, encoding a heat-shock protein in Escherichia coli. DNA sequence analysis of S. typhimurium htrA reveals the presence of a gene capable of encoding a protein with a calculated Mr of 49316 that has 88.7% protein:protein homology with its E. coli counterpart. In E. coli, lesions in this gene, also known as degP, reduce proteolytic degradation of aberrant periplasmic proteins. Characteristics of the S. typhimurium htrA mutants, 046 and 014, in vivo and in vitro suggested that they are avirulent because of impaired ability to survive and/or replicate in host tissues. In vitro, the S. typhimurium htrA mutants 046 and 014 are not temperature-sensitive but were found to be more susceptible to oxidative stress than the parent, suggesting that they may be less able to withstand oxidative killing within macrophages.     

Participation of the host protein(s) in the morphogenesis of bacteriophage P22

Summary Spontaneous mutants of S. typhimurium resistant to thiolutin are conditionally non-permissive for phage P22 development (Joshi and Chakravorty 1979). At 40° C non-infective phage particles are produced. Phage development in two nonpermissive hosts (18/MC4 and 153/MC4) has been studied in detail. The steps at which the phage morphogenesis is interfered with differ in the two mutants. The electron micrograph of the particles produced in the mutant 18/MC4 reveals the presence of normal-looking particles; these particles contain phage DNA, adsorb to the permissive host but fail to inject their DNA. The particles produced in the mutant 153/MC4 which fail to adsorb to the host are found to be tail fibre-less. These observations indicate the involvement of host protein(s) in phage P22 morphogenesis.     

Role of two G-protein alpha subunits, TgaA and TgaB, in the antagonism of plant pathogens by Trichoderma virens

G-protein alpha subunits are involved in transmission of signals for development, pathogenicity, and secondary metabolism in plant pathogenic and saprophytic fungi. We cloned two G-protein alpha subunit genes, tgaA and tgaB, from the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma virens. tgaA belongs to the fungal Galphai class, while tgaB belongs to the class defined by gna-2 of Neurospora crassa. We compared loss-of-function mutants of tgaA and tgaB with the wild type for radial growth, conidiation, germination of conidia, the ability to overgrow colonies of Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii in confrontation assays, and the ability to colonize the sclerotia of these pathogens in soil. Both mutants grew as well as the wild type, sporulated normally, did not sporulate in the dark, and responded to blue light by forming a conidial ring. The tgaA mutants germinated by straight unbranched germ tubes, while tgaB mutants, like the wild type, germinated by wavy and highly branched germ tubes. In confrontation assays, both tgaA and tgaB mutants and the wild type overgrew, coiled, and lysed the mycelia of R. solani, but tgaA mutants had reduced ability to colonize S. rolfsii colonies. In the soil plate assay, both mutants parasitized the sclerotia of R. solani, but tgaA mutants were unable to parasitize the sclerotia of S. rolfsii. Thus, tgaA is involved in antagonism against S. rolfsii, but neither G protein subunit is involved in antagonism against R. solani. T. virens, which has a wide host range, thus employs a G-protein pathway in a host-specific manner.     

Inter-specific parasite competition: mixed infections of Schistosoma mansoni and S. rodhaini in the definitive host

Competition between parasite species has been predicted to be an important force shaping parasite and host ecology and evolution, although empirical data are often lacking. Using the Mus musculus-Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma rodhaini host-parasite systems we characterized mate choice and inter-specific competition between these two schistosome species. Simultaneous infections revealed species-specific mate preferences for both species as well as suggesting mating competition, with male S. rodhaini appearing dominant over male S. mansoni. S. rodhaini homologous pairs were also shown to have increased reproduction per paired female in the presence of a competitor in simultaneous infections. Overall total reproductive success was, however, similar between the two species under conditions of direct competition due to the greater initial infectivity of S. mansoni in comparison to S. rodhaini. Inter-specific competition was also implicated as increased parasite virulence to the host. The potential effects of such interactions on parasite and host ecology and evolution in nature are discussed.     

Paralogous outer membrane proteins mediate uptake of different forms of iron and synergistically govern virulence in Francisella tularensis tularensis

Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis is a highly infectious bacterium causing acute disease in mammalian hosts. Mechanisms for the acquisition of iron within the iron-limiting host environment are likely to be critical for survival of this intracellular pathogen. FslE (FTT0025) and FupA (FTT0918) are paralogous proteins that are predicted to form β-barrels in the outer membrane of virulent strain Schu S4 and are unique to Francisella species. Previous studies have implicated both FupA, initially identified as a virulence factor and FslE, encoded by the siderophore biosynthetic operon, in iron acquisition. Using single and double mutants, we demonstrated that these paralogs function in concert to promote growth under iron limitation. We used a (55)Fe transport assay to demonstrate that FslE is involved in siderophore-mediated ferric iron uptake, whereas FupA facilitates high affinity ferrous iron uptake. Optimal replication within J774A.1 macrophage-like cells required at least one of these uptake systems to be functional. In a mouse model of tularemia, the ΔfupA mutant was attenuated, but the ΔfslE ΔfupA mutant was significantly more attenuated, implying that the two systems of iron acquisition function synergistically to promote virulence. These studies highlight the importance of specific iron acquisition functions, particularly that of ferrous iron, for virulence of F. tularensis in the mammalian host.     

Genetics of gliding motility in Myxococcus xanthus (Myxobacterales): Two gene systems control movement

Summary A large number of motility mutants of the gliding bacterium Myxococcus xanthus have been isolated and analyzed by transduction. Almost all nonmotile mutants are found to be double mutants. This is explained by the existence of two parallel and almost independent multi-gene systems controlling motility, in which case at least one mutation in each system would be required eliminate motility. Only one locus, called mgl, has been found to be shared by both systems. Wild type cells move singly and in groups. Single cells move if they carry a complete gene system A, the genes of which are described in the preceding paper. Groups of cells can move if they carry a complete gene system S, but single A^–S⁺ cells do not move. Linkage analysis reveals at least 9 different loci in system S. One class of S^– mutants, those mutated in the locus tgl, are conditional mutants which, after contact with tgl ⁺ cells, become temporarily motile as cell groups. Most system A mutations have little effect on fruiting but many system S mutations block it, suggesting that system S plays a role in the fruiting process.     

Temperature-Sensitive Mutants of Bacteriophage Mu

Temperature-sensitive mutants of bacteriophage Mu, which grow at 32 C but not at 42 C, have been isolated. These mutants fall into two groups. Group 1 mutants fail to lyse host cells at nonpermissive temperatures, whereas lysis occurs normally with the group 2 mutants. All of the group 1 mutants apparently belong to the cistrons mapping to the left of gene C, whereas the group 2 mutants have lesions in various genes between D and S.     

Null mutations in Sinorhizobium meliloti exoS and chvI demonstrate the importance of this two‐component regulatory system for symbiosis

Exopolysaccharides, either succinoglycan or galactoglucan, are essential for the establishment of the symbiosis between Sinorhizobium meliloti and Medicago sativa (alfalfa). The ExoS/ChvI two‐component regulatory system is known as a regulator of succinoglycan production but the genes that are directly regulated by ChvI have not been determined. Difficulty isolating exoS and chvI null mutants has prompted the suggestion that these genes are essential for S. meliloti viability. We have successfully isolated exoS and chvI null mutants using a merodiploid‐facilitated strategy. We present evidence that the S. meliloti ExoS/ChvI two‐component regulatory system is essential for symbiosis with alfalfa. Phenotypic analyses of exoS and chvI null mutant strains demonstrate that ExoS/ChvI controls both succinoglycan and galactoglucan production and is required for growth on over 21 different carbon sources. These new findings suggest that the ExoS/ChvI regulatory targets might not be the exo genes that are specific for succinoglycan biosynthesis but rather genes that have common influence on both succinoglycan and galactoglucan production. Other studied alpha‐proteobacteria ExoS/ChvI orthologues are required for the bacteria to invade or persist in host cells and thus we present more evidence that this two‐component regulatory system is essential for alpha‐proteobacterial host interaction.     

Analysis of herpes simplex virus-induced mRNA destabilizing activity using an in vitro mRNA decay system.

Most host mRNAs are degraded soon after infection of cells with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). This early shutoff or early destabilization response is induced by a virion component, the virion host shutoff (vhs) protein. HSV-1 mutants, vhs1 and vhs-delta Sma, which produce defective or inactive vhs protein, fail to induce early shutoff. We have used an in vitro mRNA decay system to analyze the destabilization process. Polysomes from uninfected human erythroleukemia cells, used as a source of target mRNAs, were mixed with polysomes or with post-polysomal supernatant (S130) from HSV-1- or mock-infected murine erythroleukemia cells. Normally stable gamma-globin mRNA was destabilized by approximately 15-fold with S130 from wild-type virus-infected cells but was not destabilized with S130 from mock-infected cells or from cells infected with either of the two HSV mutants. The virus-induced destabilizing activity had no significant effect on the in vitro half-lives of two normally unstable mRNAs, histone and c-myc. No destabilizing activity was detected in polysomes from infected cells. We conclude that a virus-induced destabilizer activity can function in vitro, is located in the S130 of infected cells, and accelerates the decay rates of some, but not all, polysome-associated host mRNAs.     

光合菌SDH2 hupT基因的突变与吸氢酶表达

利用三亲本杂交将自杀质粒ｐＳＥ８引入光合细菌Ｒｏｄｏｂａｃｔｅｒ ｓｐ．ＳＤＨ２０菌株,经过质粒上插入了ｋａｎ＾Ｒ基因的ｈｕｐＴ基因片段与受体基因组同源双交换,构建成ｈｕｐＴ插入突变株ＳＤＨＴ１和ＳＤＨＴ２。     

Differentiation-dependent interpentameric disulfide bond stabilizes native human papillomavirus type 16

Genetic and biochemical analyses of human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) capsids have shown that certain conserved L1 cysteine residues are critical for capsid assembly, integrity, and maturation. Since previous studies utilized HPV capsids produced in monolayer culture-based protein expression systems, the ascribed roles for these cysteine residues were not placed in the temporal context of the natural host environment for HPV, stratifying and differentiating human tissue. Here we extend upon previous observation, that HPV16 capsids mature and become stabilized over time (10-day to 20-day) in a naturally occurring tissue-spanning redox gradient, by identifying temporal roles for individual L1 cysteine residues. Specifically, the C175S substitution severely undermined wild-type titers of the virus within both 10 and 20-day tissue, while C428S, C185S, and C175,185S substitutions severely undermined wild-type titers only within 20-day tissue. All mutations led to 20-day virions that were less stable than wild-type and failed to form L1 multimers via nonreducing SDS-PAGE. Furthermore, Optiprep-fractionated 20-day C428S, C175S, and C175,185S capsids appeared permeable to endonucleases in comparison to wild-type and C185S capsids. Exposure to an oxidizing environment failed to enhance infectious titers of any of the cysteine mutants over time as with wild-type. Introduction of these cys mutants results in failure of the virus to mature.     

Effect of umuC mutations on targeted and untargeted ultraviolet mutagenesis in bacteriophage lambda

Mutagenesis of phage lambda towards clear-plaque phenotype (c+----c) results in two classes of mutants that can be distinguished genetically and morphologically. Indirect mutagenesis, i.e. mutagenesis of unirradiated phage lambda c+ stimulated by the ultraviolet irradiation of the Escherichia coli host, results in mixed bursts (c/c+) of turbid wild-type and clear-plaque mutant phages. Pure bursts of lambda c mutants are induced by irradiation of the phage genome. Irradiation of both phages and host bacteria stimulates the production of the two classes of mutant clones. We show that three different mutant alleles of the E. coli umuC gene only prevent the appearance of pure bursts of clear-plaque mutants, while mixed bursts are produced at least as frequently in umuC mutants as in the umuC+ parent.     

The typA gene is required for stress adaptation as well as for symbiosis of Sinorhizobium meliloti 1021 with certain Medicago truncatula lines

In this article, we describe the typA gene of Sinorhizobium meliloti, the orthologue of typA/bipA genes found in a wide range of bacteria. We found that typA was required for survival of S. meliloti under certain stress conditions, such as growth at low temperature or low pH and in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The cold-sensitive phenotype of both Escherichia coli bipA and S. meliloti typA mutants were cross-complemented, indicating that the two genes are functionally equivalent. typA was indispensable for symbiosis on Medicago truncatula Jemalong and F83005.5 and contributes to the full efficiency of symbiosis on other host plant lines such as DZA315.16 or several cultivars of M. sativa. Hence, the symbiotic requirement for typA is host dependent. Interestingly, the symbiotic defect was different on Jemalong and F83005.5 plants, thus indicating that typA is required at a different stage of the symbiotic interaction.