大气CO2浓度升高对土壤碳库稳定性的影响

工业革命以来,大气CO₂浓度持续上升,升高的CO₂浓度会改变植物光合产物积累、土壤碳库的碳输入和碳输出过程,进而通过影响有机碳组成和周转特征来调控土壤碳库动态变化。土壤碳库是陆地生态系统碳库的重要组成部分,其碳储量的微小变化都会对大气CO₂浓度和气候变化产生巨大影响。但目前关于CO₂浓度升高对土壤碳库动态和稳定性的影响还不清楚,很大程度上限制了预测陆地生态系统碳循环对气候变化的反馈。系统综述国内外大气CO₂浓度升高对植被生产力、植被碳输入和土壤碳库影响的研究进展,旨在揭示土壤碳库物理、化学组成以及周转特征对CO₂浓度升高的响应过程和机理,探讨CO₂升高情境下土壤微生物特征对土壤碳库稳定性的影响和驱动机制,为深入理解全球变化下的土壤碳循环特征提供理论支撑。     

CO2 exchange in three Canadian High Arctic ecosystems: response to long-term experimental warming

Carbon dioxide exchange, soil C and N, leaf mineral nutrition and leaf carbon isotope discrimination (LCID‐Δ) were measured in three High Arctic tundra ecosystems over 2 years under ambient and long‐term (9 years) warmed (～2°C) conditions. These ecosystems are located at Alexandra Fiord (79°N) on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, and span a soil water gradient; dry, mesic, and wet tundra. Growing season CO₂ fluxes (i.e., net ecosystem exchange (NEE), gross ecosystem photosynthesis (GEP), and ecosystem respiration (R_e)) were measured using an infrared gas analyzer and winter C losses were estimated by chemical absorption. All three tundra ecosystems lost CO₂ to the atmosphere during the winter, ranging from 7 to 12 g CO₂‐C m^?2 season^?1 being highest in the wet tundra. The period during the growing season when mesic tundra switch from being a CO₂ source to a CO₂ sink was increased by 2 weeks because of warming and increases in GEP. Warming during the summer stimulated dry tundra GEP more than R_e and thus, NEE was consistently greater under warmed as opposed to ambient temperatures. In mesic tundra, warming stimulated GEP with no effect on R_e increasing NEE by ～10%, especially in the first half of the summer. During the ～70 days growing season (mid‐June–mid‐August), the dry and wet tundra ecosystems were net CO₂‐C sinks (30 and 67 g C m^?2 season^?1, respectively) and the mesic ecosystem was a net C source (58 g C m^?2 season^?1) to the atmosphere under ambient temperature conditions, due in part to unusual glacier melt water flooding that occurred in the mesic tundra. Experimental warming during the growing season increased net C uptake by ～12% in dry tundra, but reduced net C uptake by ～20% in wet tundra primarily because of greater rates of R_e as opposed to lower rates of GEP. Mesic tundra responded to long‐term warming with ～30% increase in GEP with almost no change in R_e reducing this tundra type to a slight C source (17 g C m^?2 season^?1). Warming caused LCID of Dryas integrafolia plants to be higher in dry tundra and lower in Salix arctic plants in mesic and wet tundra. Our findings indicate that: (1) High Arctic ecosystems, which occur in similar mesoclimates, have different net CO₂ exchange rates with the atmosphere; (2) long‐term warming can increase the net CO₂ exchange of High Arctic tundra by stimulating GEP, but it can also reduce net CO₂ exchange in some tundra types during the summer by stimulating R_e to a greater degree than stimulating GEP; (3) after 9 years of experimental warming, increases in soil carbon and nitrogen are detectable, in part, because of increases in deciduous shrub cover, biomass, and leaf litter inputs; (4) dry tundra increases in GEP, in response to long‐term warming, is reflected in D. integrifolia LCID; and (5) the differential carbon exchange responses of dry, mesic, and wet tundra to similar warming magnitudes appear to depend, in part, on the hydrologic (soil water) conditions. Annual net ecosystem CO₂‐C exchange rates ranged from losses of 64 g C m^?2 yr^?1 to gains of 55 g C m^?2 yr^?1. These magnitudes of positive NEE are close to the estimates of NPP for these tundra types in Alexandra Fiord and in other High Arctic locations based on destructive harvests.     

土壤有机碳和氮分解对温度变化的响应趋势与研究方法

总结了土壤中碳和氮贮量与温度的关系、土壤碳和氮分解对温度时空差异和直接加热升温的响应,以及土壤碳和氮分解对低温冻结及冻融循环的响应趋势,讨论了其研究方法的误差和不确定性,并对今后的研究提出了一些建议．气候变暖在短期内将使土壤碳和氮分解加速并引起CO2释放量增加,而长期过程中却并不一定会引起土壤碳和氮分解加速．合理解释不同研究结果的差异,除了需要系统分析土壤碳和氮分解对温度变化响应的机制外,还需要充分认识土壤碳和氮分解对温度变化响应的长期过程和短期过程的差异,以及研究方法、植被、土壤和气候等因素的影响．     

Impacts of multiple extreme winter warming events on sub‐Arctic heathland: phenology,reproduction, growth,and CO2 flux responses

Extreme weather events can have strong negative impacts on species survival and community structure when surpassing lethal thresholds. Extreme, short‐lived, winter warming events in the Arctic rapidly melt snow and expose ecosystems to unseasonably warm air (for instance, 2–10 °C for 2–14 days) but upon return to normal winter climate exposes the ecosystem to much colder temperatures due to the loss of insulating snow. Single events have been shown to reduce plant reproduction and increase shoot mortality, but impacts of multiple events are little understood as are the broader impacts on community structure, growth, carbon balance, and nutrient cycling. To address these issues, we simulated week‐long extreme winter warming events – using infrared heating lamps and soil warming cables – for 3 consecutive years in a sub‐Arctic heathland dominated by the dwarf shrubs Empetrum hermaphroditum, Vaccinium vitis‐idaea (both evergreen) and Vaccinium myrtillus (deciduous). During the growing seasons after the second and third winter event, spring bud burst was delayed by up to a week for E. hermaphroditum and V. myrtillus, and berry production reduced by 11–75% and 52–95% for E. hermaphroditum and V. myrtillus, respectively. Greater shoot mortality occurred in E. hermaphroditum (up to 52%), V. vitis‐idaea (51%), and V. myrtillus (80%). Root growth was reduced by more than 25% but soil nutrient availability remained unaffected. Gross primary productivity was reduced by more than 50% in the summer following the third simulation. Overall, the extent of damage was considerable, and critically plant responses were opposite in direction to the increased growth seen in long‐term summer warming simulations and the ‘greening’ seen for some arctic regions. Given the Arctic is warming more in winter than summer, and extreme events are predicted to become more frequent, this generates large uncertainty in our current understanding of arctic ecosystem responses to climate change.     

Arctic Soil Respiration: Effects of Climate and Vegetation Depend on Season

Arctic ecosystems are important in the context of global climate change because the most rapid rises in air temperature are expected at high northern latitudes during winter. The presence of extensive soil carbon reserves in the Arctic suggests that substantial feedbacks to CO₂-induced climate change could occur if warming alters carbon cycling belowground. Characterization of the controls on regional patterns of belowground CO₂ release through the annual cycle is an important step towards evaluating potential feedbacks from arctic ecosystems to climate change. In this study, we assess seasonal control over the influences by climate and vegetation-type on CO₂ efflux from belowground in the Alaskan tundra. Our results indicate that climate had strong effects on belowground CO₂ release in both seasons. By contrast, vegetation-type had little impact on CO₂ efflux from belowground in winter but was the principal control in summer. Together, these results demonstrate that seasonality is a critical factor regulating climate and vegetation-type effects on belowground CO₂ release, which should be included in regional models of net carbon balance in arctic ecosystems. Received 8 December 1998; accepted 2 April 1999.     

Warming alters food web-driven changes in the CO2 flux of experimental pond ecosystems

Evidence shows the important role biota play in the carbon cycle, and strategic management of plant and animal populations could enhance CO₂ uptake in aquatic ecosystems. However, it is currently unknown how management-driven changes to community structure may interact with climate warming and other anthropogenic perturbations to alter CO₂ fluxes. Here we showed that under ambient water temperatures, predators (three-spined stickleback) and nutrient enrichment synergistically increased primary producer biomass, resulting in increased CO₂ uptake by mesocosms in early dawn. However, a 3°C increase in water temperatures counteracted positive effects of predators and nutrients, leading to reduced primary producer biomass and a switch from CO₂ influx to efflux. This confounding effect of temperature demonstrates that climate scenarios must be accounted for when undertaking ecosystem management actions to increase biosequestration.     

Decline in a dominant invertebrate species contributes to altered carbon cycling in a low-diversity soil ecosystem

Low-diversity ecosystems cover large portions of the Earth's land surface, yet studies of climate change on ecosystem functioning typically focus on temperate ecosystems, where diversity is high and the effects of individual species on ecosystem functioning are difficult to determine. We show that a climate-induced decline of an invertebrate species in a low-diversity ecosystem could contribute to significant changes in carbon (C) cycling. Recent climate variability in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica is associated with changes in hydrology, biological productivity, and community composition of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. One of the greatest changes documented in the dry valleys is a 65% decrease in the abundance of the dominant soil invertebrate ( Scottnema lindsayae , Nematoda) between 1993 and 2005, illustrating sensitivity of biota in this ecosystem to small changes in temperature. Globally, such declines are expected to have significant influences over ecosystem processes such as C cycling. To determine the implications of this climate-induced decline in nematode abundance on soil C cycling we followed the fate of a ¹³C tracer added to soils in Taylor Valley, Antarctica. Carbon assimilation by the dry valley nematode community contributed significantly to soil C cycling (2–7% of the heterotrophic C flux). Thus, the influence of a climate-induced decline in abundance of a dominant species may have a significant effect on ecosystem functioning in a low-diversity ecosystem.     

西南地区灌丛归一化植被指数动态及其与气候因子的相关性

基于西南地区1982-2006年的归一化植被指数(NDVI)和气象数据,使用ANUS-PLIN、ArcGIS和SPSS软件分析了该区6种灌丛类型NDVI的季节和年际变化,及其与气候因子的相关性.结果表明:25年来,3种高海拔亚高山灌丛(亚高山常绿针叶灌丛、亚高山落叶阔叶灌丛、亚高山革质常绿阔叶灌丛)年均NDVI显著增大,其他3种中低海拔灌丛(温带落叶灌丛、亚热带热带旱生肉质多刺灌丛和亚热带热带常绿落叶阔叶灌丛)增加不显著;除亚热带热带旱生肉质灌丛外,其他5种灌丛年均温均呈显著增加趋势;亚高山常绿针叶灌丛年降水量呈增加趋势,但不显著;其他5种灌丛年降水量呈减少趋势,其中温带落叶灌丛减少显著.3种亚高山灌丛月NDVI与温度和降水均达到极显著正相关,且与前一个月的温度、降水相关性最大,存在明显的滞后效应;位于中低海拔的其他3种灌丛NDVI与温度和降水的相关性明显降低.在高海拔亚高山区,气候变暖导致了年均NDVI增加,温度是3种亚高山灌丛NDVI年际变化的驱动因子;在中低海拔,温度的显著上升没有引起NDVI的显著增加.     

Carbon limitation of soil respiration under winter snowpacks: potential feedbacks between growing season and winter carbon fluxes

A reduction in the length of the snow‐covered season in response to a warming of high‐latitude and high‐elevation ecosystems may increase soil carbon availability both through increased litter fall following longer growing seasons and by allowing early winter soil frosts that lyse plant and microbial cells. To evaluate how an increase in labile carbon during winter may affect ecosystem carbon balance we investigated the relationship between carbon availability and winter CO₂ fluxes at several locations in the Colorado Rockies. Landscape‐scale surveys of winter CO₂ fluxes from sites with different soil carbon content indicated that winter CO₂ fluxes were positively related to carbon availability and experimental additions of glucose to soil confirmed that CO₂ fluxes from snow‐covered soil at temperatures between 0 and ?3°C were carbon limited. Glucose added to snow‐covered soil increased CO₂ fluxes by 52–160% relative to control sites within 24 h and remained 62–70% higher after 30 days. Concurrently a shift in the δ¹³C values of emitted CO₂ toward the glucose value indicated preferential utilization of the added carbon confirming the presence of active heterotrophic respiration in soils at temperatures below 0°C. The sensitivity of these winter fluxes to substrate availability, coupled with predicted changes in winter snow cover, suggests that feedbacks between growing season carbon uptake and winter heterotrophic activity may have unforeseen consequences for carbon and nutrient cycling in northern forests. For example, published winter CO₂ fluxes indicate that on average 50% of growing season carbon uptake currently is respired during the winter; changes in winter CO₂ flux in response to climate change have the potential to reduce substantially the net carbon sink in these ecosystems.     

Elevated CO2 increases microbial carbon substrate use and nitrogen cycling in Mojave Desert soils

Identifying soil microbial responses to anthropogenically driven environmental changes is critically important as concerns intensify over the potential degradation of ecosystem function. We assessed the effects of elevated atmospheric CO₂ on microbial carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in Mojave Desert soils using extracellular enzyme activities (EEAs), community‐level physiological profiles (CLPPs), and gross N transformation rates. Soils were collected from unvegetated interspaces between plants and under the dominant shrub (Larrea tridentata) during the 2004–2005 growing season, an above‐average rainfall year. Because most measured variables responded strongly to soil water availability, all significant effects of soil water content were used as covariates to remove potential confounding effects of water availability on microbial responses to experimental treatment effects of cover type, CO₂, and sampling date. Microbial C and N activities were lower in interspace soils compared with soils under Larrea, and responses to date and CO₂ treatments were cover specific. Over the growing season, EEAs involved in cellulose (cellobiohydrolase) and orthophosphate (alkaline phosphatase) degradation decreased under ambient CO₂, but increased under elevated CO₂. Microbial C use and substrate use diversity in CLPPs decreased over time, and elevated CO₂ positively affected both. Elevated CO₂ also altered microbial C use patterns, suggesting changes in the quantity and/or quality of soil C inputs. In contrast, microbial biomass N was higher in interspace soils than soils under Larrea, and was lower in soils exposed to elevated CO₂. Gross rates of NH₄⁺ transformations increased over the growing season, and late‐season NH₄⁺ fluxes were negatively affected by elevated CO₂. Gross NO₃⁻ fluxes decreased over time, with early season interspace soils positively affected by elevated CO₂. General increases in microbial activities under elevated CO₂ are likely attributable to greater microbial biomass in interspace soils, and to increased microbial turnover rates and/or metabolic levels rather than pool size in soils under Larrea. Because soil water content and plant cover type dominates microbial C and N responses to CO₂, the ability of desert landscapes to mitigate or intensify the impacts of global change will ultimately depend on how changes in precipitation and increasing atmospheric CO₂ shift the spatial distribution of Mojave Desert plant communities.