The reduction of chromosome number in meiosis is determined by properties built into the chromosomes

In meiosis I, two chromatids move to each spindle pole. Then, in meiosis II, the two are distributed, one to each future gamete. This requires that meiosis I chromosomes attach to the spindle differently than meiosis II chromosomes and that they regulate chromosome cohesion differently. We investigated whether the information that dictates the division type of the chromosome comes from the whole cell, the spindle, or the chromosome itself. Also, we determined when chromosomes can switch from meiosis I behavior to meiosis II behavior. We used a micromanipulation needle to fuse grasshopper spermatocytes in meiosis I to spermatocytes in meiosis II, and to move chromosomes from one spindle to the other. Chromosomes placed on spindles of a different meiotic division always behaved as they would have on their native spindle; e.g., a meiosis I chromosome attached to a meiosis II spindle in its normal fashion and sister chromatids moved together to the same spindle pole. We also showed that meiosis I chromosomes become competent meiosis II chromosomes in anaphase of meiosis I, but not before. The patterns for attachment to the spindle and regulation of cohesion are built into the chromosome itself. These results suggest that regulation of chromosome cohesion may be linked to differences in the arrangement of kinetochores in the two meiotic divisions.     

麦蓝菜的花粉母细胞减数分裂及核型分析

采用压片法,对麦蓝菜的花粉母细胞减数分裂及体细胞核型进行了研究。结果表明,麦蓝菜的绝大多数花粉母细胞减数分裂中染色体的行为正常,在终变期同源染色体配对后可形成15个二价体;在少数花粉母细胞减数分裂中观察到落后染色体、染色体桥等异常行为;其减数分裂为同时型,其花粉粒育性为88.04%。麦蓝菜的染色体数目为2n=2X=30,核型公式为K(2n)=2X=30=22m(2SAT)+8 sm,染色体相对长度组成为2n=16M2+14M1,其核型为"1A"型。     

subito encodes a kinesin-like protein required for meiotic spindle pole formation in Drosophila melanogaster

The female meiotic spindle lacks a centrosome or microtubule-organizing center in many organisms. During cell division, these spindles are organized by the chromosomes and microtubule-associated proteins. Previous studies in Drosophila melanogaster implicated at least one kinesin motor protein, NCD, in tapering the microtubules into a bipolar spindle. We have identified a second Drosophila kinesin-like protein, SUB, that is required for meiotic spindle function. At meiosis I in males and females, sub mutations affect only the segregation of homologous chromosomes. In female meiosis, sub mutations have a similar phenotype to ncd; even though chromosomes are joined by chiasmata they fail to segregate at meiosis I. Cytological analyses have revealed that sub is required for bipolar spindle formation. In sub mutations, we observed spindles that were unipolar, multipolar, or frayed with no defined poles. On the basis of these phenotypes and the observation that sub mutations genetically interact with ncd, we propose that SUB is one member of a group of microtubule-associated proteins required for bipolar spindle assembly in the absence of the centrosomes. sub is also required for the early embryonic divisions but is otherwise dispensable for most mitotic divisions.     

Studies on Chemically Induced Change in Expression of Gene(s) Controlling the Pollen Shapes in Pimpinella Monoica

Pollen variability in Pimpinella monoccia was artificially induced by treating seedlings with different chemicals. Positive results in the treated plants were obtained with acsculine, saponin, α-bromonapthalene and 8-hydroxy-quinolene. All these plants were 2n. Their meiosis was typified by multiple and multipolar spindles, laggards, strays, bridge-fragment configuration, spindle breakdown and unequal division of the chromosomes into many groups giving rise to variable number of spores at the sporad stage. Besides polyads the variable grains were asymmetric and nonfixiform while the controls had all radiosymmetric grains. One of the interesting facts was that similar pollen shapes were induced by all these diverse chemicals. The development of variable grains has been traced with the help of a scheme. The causes of pollen variability are discussed.     

黄芩的花粉母细胞减数分裂及核型分析

采用压片法,对黄芩花粉母细胞减数分裂及核型进行了研究。结果表明:黄芩的大多数花粉母细胞减数分裂中染色体的行为正常,在终变期同源染色体配对后可形成9个二价体,后期Ⅰ染色体以9∶9的方式向细胞两极分离,其减数分裂为同时型;在少数花粉母细胞减数分裂中观察到落后染色体、染色体桥等异常行为;其花粉粒育性为76.49%。黄芩的染色体数目为2n=2X=18,核型公式为K(2n)=2X=18=16m+2 sm,染色体相对长度组成为2n=1 s+4M1+3M2+1L,其核型为"1A"型。     

MICROSPOROCYTE GROWTH AND MEIOSIS IN PHYLLOSPADIX TORREYI,A MARINE MONOCOTYLEDON

In this paper we demonstrate spindle rotation during meiosis in filiform microsporocytes of a dioecious marine monocotyledon. Extensive populations of Phyllospadix torreyi, a seagrass, cover intertidal and shallow subtidal rocks in southern California. Flowering plants are unevenly distributed, being found only in patches within these beds, and apparently are disproportionally few relative to plants that do not produce flowers. Reduction division in male flowers occurs in an already elongate microsporocyte (pollen mother cell), where the chromosomes at metaphase lie in a plane across the narrow axis of the filamentous cell. However, the poles and spindles then rotate through 90° during anaphase of first and second meiotic divisions so that the cells divide longitudinally to produce tetrads which develop into filamentous pollen. Nine bivalents were counted in diakinesis figures. The presence of a heteropycnotic X-chromosome in male flowers is suggested by certain observations of prophase-anaphase figures.     

濒危植物矮沙冬青减数分裂期染色体行为的观察

用涂片法和酶解法,观察了濒危植物矮沙冬青的减数分裂过程。在减数分裂双线期末或终变期初,可以观察到9个二价体,在中期Ⅰ末至后期Ⅰ初,同源染色体基本排列在赤道板上,然后在纺锤丝的牵引下二价体的两条同源染色体分开,分别移向两极,每一极有9条染色体,从而确认该属植物的染色体基数为x=9。在矮沙冬青减数分裂过程中,没有发现染色体有异常行为,认为其小孢子形成过程正常。因此认为矮沙冬青濒危不是染色体行为异常和小孢子发育不正常而造成的。     

The chromosomal basis of meiotic acentrosomal spindle assembly and function in oocytes

Several aspects of meiosis are impacted by the absence of centrosomes in oocytes. Here, we review four aspects of meiosis I that are significantly affected by the absence of centrosomes in oocyte spindles. One, microtubules tend to assemble around the chromosomes. Two, the organization of these microtubules into a bipolar spindle is directed by the chromosomes. Three, chromosome bi-orientation and attachment to microtubules from the correct pole require modification of the mechanisms used in mitotic cells. Four, chromosome movement to the poles at anaphase cannot rely on polar anchoring of spindle microtubules by centrosomes. Overall, the chromosomes are more active participants during acentrosomal spindle assembly in oocytes, compared to mitotic and male meiotic divisions where centrosomes are present. The chromosomes are endowed with information that can direct the meiotic divisions and dictate their own behavior in oocytes. Processes beyond those known from mitosis appear to be required for their bi-orientation at meiosis I. As mitosis occurs without centrosomes in many systems other than oocytes, including all plants, the concepts discussed here may not be limited to oocytes. The study of meiosis in oocytes has revealed mechanisms that are operating in mitosis and will probably continue to do so.     

响叶杨小孢子母细胞减数分裂及染色体行为的研究

采用醋酸洋红压片法对响叶杨（Populus adenopoda）小孢子母细胞减数分裂进程中的染色体行为进行了研究。结果表明：响叶杨小孢子发生发育过程与其雄花芽／花序的外部特征和花药颜色有着密切关系;住其减数分裂进程中染色体行为正常,表明响叶杨同源染色体间表现出了较高的同源性,在中期Ⅱ平行纺锤体的出现与天然花粉中大花粉的存在可能有一定的联系;同时,减数分裂过程中核仁数目存在若动态变化,这种现象叮能与杨属植物占多倍性起源有关。同一花芽的不同部位,减数分裂进程较不同步,这种小同步性是响叶杨适应环境的一种进化表现。     

Mechanisms that prevent catastrophic interactions between paternal chromosomes and the oocyte meiotic spindle

Meiosis produces haploid gametes by accurately reducing chromosome ploidy through one round of DNA replication and two subsequent rounds of chromosome segregation and cell division. The cell divisions of female meiosis are highly asymmetric and give rise to a large egg and two very small polar bodies that do not contribute to development. These asymmetric divisions are driven by meiotic spindles that are small relative to the size of the egg and have one pole juxtaposed against the cell cortex to promote polar body extrusion. An additional unique feature of female meiosis is that fertilization occurs before extrusion of the second polar body in nearly all animal species. Thus sperm-derived chromosomes are present in the egg during female meiosis. Here, we explore the idea that the asymmetry of female meiosis spatially separates the sperm from the meiotic spindle to prevent detrimental interactions between the spindle and the paternal chromosomes.     

Rapid proliferation of daughter cells lacking particular chromosomes due to multipolar mitosis promotes clonal evolution in colorectal cancer cells

Aneuploidy and chromosome instability (CIN) are hallmarks of the vast majority of solid tumors. However, the origins of aneuploid cells are unknown. The aim of this study is to improve our understanding of how aneuploidy and/or CIN arise and of karyotype evolution in cancer cells. By using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) on cells after long-term live cell imaging, we demonstrated that most (> 90%) of the newly generated aneuploid cells resulted from multipolar divisions. Multipolar division occurred in mononucleated and binucleated parental cells, resulting in variation of chromosome compositions in daughter cells. These karyotypes can have the same chromosome number as their mother clone or lack a copy of certain chromosomes. Interestingly, daughter cells that lost a chromosome were observed to survive and form clones with shorter cell cycle duration. In our model of cancer cell evolution, the rapid proliferation of daughter cells from multipolar mitosis promotes colonal evolution in colorectal cancer cells.     

Occurrence and possible consequences of multipolar mitoses in primary cultures of adult rat hepatocytes

Proliferating primary cultures of adult rat hepatocytes are characterized by the occurrence of multipolar mitoses, and chromosome loss resulting in the formation of micronuclei at telophase. The percentage of multipolar mitotic figures was determined to be 12.76 ± 7.9%, 80% of which were tripolar. Multipolar mitotic stages showed a high incidence of chromosome loss, increasing from meta- (61.7 ± 16.6%) to telophase (72.1 ± 19.3%). Regular bipolar mitotic figures on the other hand also showed chromosome loss, however, to a lesser degree and decreasing from meta- (49.5 ± 10.4%) to telophase (34.9 ± 7.9%). The incidence of chromosome loss even in regular mitotic figures is very high compared to other cells and appears to depend on another special feature of hepatocytes: they remain flat and well attached during mitosis, so that shearing forces could be responsible for the separation of chromosomes from the mitotic spindle. Additionally this morphology creates a situation allowing for a maximal interaction of mitotic spindles of binucleated cells, leading to the high rate of multipolar mitoses observed. Both multipolar mitoses and chromosome loss could also explain the consecutive detachment of hepatocytes reported for proliferating primary cultures, since the aneuploid daughter cells generated can be expected to be nonviable in most cases and eventually detach. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Bipolar spindle attachments affect redistributions of ZW10, a Drosophila centromere/kinetochore component required for accurate chromosome segregation

Previous efforts have shown that mutations in the Drosophila ZW10 gene cause massive chromosome missegregation during mitotic divisions in several tissues. Here we demonstrate that mutations in ZW10 also disrupt chromosome behavior in male meiosis I and meiosis II, indicating that ZW10 function is common to both equational and reductional divisions. Divisions are apparently normal before anaphase onset, but ZW10 mutants exhibit lagging chromosomes and irregular chromosome segregation at anaphase. Chromosome missegregation during meiosis I of these mutants is not caused by precocious separation of sister chromatids, but rather the nondisjunction of homologs. ZW10 is first visible during prometaphase, where it localizes to the kinetochores of the bivalent chromosomes (during meiosis I) or to the sister kinetochores of dyads (during meiosis II). During metaphase of both divisions, ZW10 appears to move from the kinetochores and to spread toward the poles along what appear to be kinetochore microtubules. Redistributions of ZW10 at metaphase require bipolar attachments of individual chromosomes or paired bivalents to the spindle. At the onset of anaphase I or anaphase II, ZW10 rapidly relocalizes to the kinetochore regions of the separating chromosomes. In other mutant backgrounds in which chromosomes lag during anaphase, the presence or absence of ZW10 at a particular kinetochore predicts whether or not the chromosome moves appropriately to the spindle poles. We propose that ZW10 acts as part of, or immediately downstream of, a tension-sensing mechanism that regulates chromosome separation or movement at anaphase onset.     

A chromosome rearrangement in Neuvospora that produces viable progeny containing two nucleolus organizers

In rearrangement T(VLIVL)AR33 the segment of chromosome 2 bearing the nucleolus organizer is translocated to the end of chromosome 4. When AR33 is crossed by Normal sequence (N), one third of the viable progeny contain a stable nontandem duplication with two organizers per nucleus. The organizer-deficient complementary products are inviable. Chromosomes and nucleoli have been examined during meiosis and postmeiotic nuclear divisions in the ascus, comparing heterozygous AR33 × N crosses with N × N and with crosses heterozygous for other interchanges. When AR33 is heterozygous, asci are of three types having the nucleolus organizer duplicated in 0, 1 or 2 of the meiotic products. Frequencies of the ascus types are as expected from the known positions of rearrangement break points. Nucleoli formed by two organizers frequently fuse. Deficiency nuclei that contain no nucleolus organizer may form one or more small nucleolus-like bodies.     

Cytological studies on meiosis and male gametophyte development in autotetraploid cucumber

With improved staining and chromosome preparation techniques, meiosis of pollen mother cells (PMCs) and male gametophyte development in autotetraploid cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) was studied to understand the correlation between chromosomes behaviour and fertility. Various chromosome configurations, e.g. multivalent, quadrivalents, trivalents, bivalents and univalents were observed in most PMCs at metaphase I. Lagging chromosomes were frequently observed at anaphase in both meiotic divisions. In addition, chromosomes segregations were not synchronous and equal in some PMCs during anaphase II and telophase II. Dyads, triads, tetrads with micronuclei and polyads were observed at tetrad stage, and the frequencies of normal tetrad with four microcytes were only 55.4 %. The frequency of abnormal behaviour in each stage of meiosis was counted, and the average value was 37.2 %. The normal meiotic process could be accomplished to form the microspore tetrads via simultaneous cytokinesis. Most microspores could develop into fertile gametophytes with 2 cells and 3 germ pores through the following stages: single-nucleus early stage, single-nucleus late stage and 2-celled stage. The frequency of abnormalities was low during the process of male gametophyte development. The germination rate of pollen grains was 46.9 %. These results suggested that abnormal meiosis in PMCs was the reason for low pollen fertility in the autotetraploid cucumber.     

四倍体中华猕猴桃减数分裂及花粉发育的细胞学观察

观察了四倍体中华猕猴桃(2n=4x=116)雄株花粉母细胞减数分裂和花粉发育过程。在减数分裂终变期和中期Ⅰ,绝大部分染色体呈二价体构型,出现少最环状和链状多价体。胞质发育为同时型。成熟花粉粒为两细胞型。     

Sub-haploid pollen inPaphiopedilum insigne (Orchidaceae)

Sub-haploid pollen grains with chromosome numbers ranging from n = 5-12 were seen in the cultivar ‘Maulei’ ofPaphiopedilum insigne Pfitz. Many grains showed n = 5 and 6 (38%) while 3% showed a hyperploid number (n = 18, 20). It was also observed that pollen grains with the same chromosome number differed in karyotype. The high percentage (81 %) of sub-haploid pollen grains in the present case may be due to the high degree of segregational irregularities during meiosis or to split spindle or failure of wall formation. It may also be due to changes in the environment of the species which may influence the metabolic activity responsible for the initiation and subsequent development of the cell wall and the process of chromosome duplication.     

Monofactorial “multiploid sporocytes” condition induced by EMS in Pearl Millet

Multiploid sporocytes condition was observed in the M₂ generation of Pennisetum typhoides raised from seeds treated with 0.3 percent EMS at pH 7. The pollen mother cells in the anther locules were devoid of individual boundaries and aggregated into plasmodium-like masses of various sizes in which the chromosomes were lying in groups. The number of chromosome pairs in these groups varied from 7 to 42 and in a few cases much larger groups were observed. At diakinesis and metaphase I, trivalents and quadrivalents were observed, which suggested that the chromosomes from different cells were in proximity at an early stage. Apparently cytokinesis was suppressed at the premeiotic divisions. Sometimes groups of chromosomes from several nuclei were together at metaphase I, the bivalents and multivalents co-orienting on a single spindle. Then the spindle was many times wider than normal, but the length was not greatly changed. Anaphase I segregation and second division were irregular. The microspores formed were of variable size. Sterility was high. This condition behaved as one controlled by a single recessive gene.     

MICROSPOROGENESIS AND TAPETAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORMAL AND MALE-STERILE CARROTS (DAUCUS CAROTA)

Zenkteler , Maciej . (U. Adam Mickiewicz, ul. Stalingradzka 14, Poznan, Poland.) Microsporogenesis and tapetal development in normal and male-sterile carrots (Daucus carota). Amer. Jour. Bot. 49(4): 341–348. Illus. 1962.—Meiosis and anther development proceed normally in fertile plants. Nine pairs of chromosomes are present at diakinesis and at metaphase I. The mature pollen grains possess 2 male gametes at the time of shedding; 80–92% of the pollen appears normal. A cross-shaped configuration at pachytene characteristic of a reciprocal translocation is present in the completely pollen-sterile plants indicating that one of the parents is homozygous for an interchange between 2 members of the chromosome complex. Chromosome bridges with fragments at anaphase I and anaphase II lead to aberrant chromosome distribution during meiosis. Complete microspore abortion is associated with a periplasmodium formation of the tapetum and anther wall deterioration.     

Chaotization of division spindle, phragmoplast, and telophase chromosome groups in wheat x wheatgrass F1 hybrids meiosis

The paper describes the phenomenon of disorganization of completely formed subcellular structures: division spindle, phragmoplast and chromosome telophase groups. These structures disintegrate into their elements (cytoskeletal fibers, chromosomes) that transform into chaotic system. Chaotization of cytoskeleton structures such as prophase spindle in mitosis or perinuclear ring in meiosis is a normal step of wild type plant cell division. Disintegration of division spindle and phragmoplast presumably indicate the abnormality of temporal regulation of cytoskeleton cycle during meiosis. Disintegration of telophase chromosome groups and the migration of the chromosomes backward to the equatorial area might mean the abnormal start of some prometaphase mechanisms, in particular, chromokinesins activation.