CARBOHYDRATE PHYSIOLOGY OF ORCHID SEEDLINGS. III. HYDROLYSIS OF MALTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES BY PHALAENOPSIS (ORCHIDACEAE) SEEDLINGS

Germinating seeds and developing seedlings of Phalaenopsis Habsburg and Phalaenopsis Ruth Burton × (Phalaenopsis Abendrot × Phalaenopsis Abendrot) can utilize glucose, maltose, maltotriose, maltotetraose, maltopentaose, maltohexaose, and maltoheptaose as carbon sources. Fresh weight decreased significantly with increased polymerization from glucose through maltoheptaose. Seedling survival declined on higher molecular weight sugars reaching levels which were significantly different from those on glucose. Sugar uptake increased moderately with increasing molecular weight of oligomers. The maltooligosaccharides used in these experiments are hydrolyzed by the orchid seedlings and of the sugars which can support good growth glucose, but not maltose accumulate in culture media. As a result, media which supported seedlings contained substantial levels of glucose, the starting sugars, and decreasing amounts of the next shorter oligomers. This suggests enzymatic endwise hydrolysis of these maltooligosaccharides. Similar results were obtained with Phalaenopsis seedlings produced from seeds which were germinated on sugar-free medium and transferred to a solution containing the same oligomers. Sugars in media which did not support seedlings were not hydrolyzed.     

EFFECTS OF ETHEPHON,ITS NONETHYLENE-GENERATING ANALOG ETHYLPHOSPHONIC ACID,AND PHOSPHOROUS ACID IN ASEPTIC CULTURE OF ORCHID SEEDLINGS

Seeds of Cattleya aurantiaca (Orchidaceae) were germinated and grown aseptically on Knudson C medium containing 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 50 mg l^-1 of 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid (Ethephon), ethylphosphonic acid, or the inorganic acid moiety of both, phosphosphorous (phosphonic) acid. 2-Chloroethylphosphonic acid, an ethylene precursor, reduced leaf length at 5–50 mg l^-1 proportional to increasing concentrations. Seedlings produced fewer leaves within the range of 20–50 mg l^-1 Ethephon compared to lower concentrations (2.5–10 mg l^-1). Germination was not affected adversely. Cultures containing the homologous, but not ethylene-generating ethylphosphonic acid in the same concentrations brought about similar but generally less severe reductions in leaf length and number. Phosphorous acid at the same concentration levels did not reduce the number and length of leaves. Our observation suggests that the intact organic phosphonates contribute to the inhibition of leaf growth caused by ethylene, which is released slowly from Ethephon in the culture medium and/or plant tissue, following uptake.     

ORCHID PHYTOALEXINS. II. ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POSSIBLE STEROL COMPANIONS

Four sterols have been isolated from extracts of Cymbidium pseudobulbs infected with Rhizoctonia repens M 32. One of them, ergosterol peroxide, is most probably an artifact of extraction. The other three, sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol, occur in a 70:25:5 ratio. Appearance of phytoalexin(s) in pseudobulb extracts coincides with increase of sterol production. This raises the question whether Cymbidium phytoalexins are related, biosynthetically or structurally, to sterols. Since the same three sterols occur (free or conjugated) in Cattleya and Arundina, but in different ratios to each other than in Cymbidium, they may be of value in chemotaxonomy.     

INORGANIC NITROGEN NUTRITION OF THE SEEDLINGS OF THE ORCHID,CATTLEYA

When grown in vitro in a medium containing NH₄NO₃ as the sole source of nitrogen, seeds ro the orchid, Cattleya (C. labiata ‘Wonder’ X C. labiata ‘Treasure'), germinated readily and proceeded to form small plantlets. Development of the embryos was accompanied by an increase in their total nitrogen and a decline in the percent dry weight. Growth responses of the seedlings in other ammonium salts like (NH₄)₂SO₄, (NH₄)₂HPO₄, NH₄Cl, ammonium acetate and ammonium oxalate were similar to that in NH₄NO₃. However, when grown in a medium containing NaNO₃, development of the seedlings was drastically inhibited; KNO₃, Ca(NO₃)₂, KNO₂ and NaNO₂ also were poor nitrogen sources. Attempts to grow the seedlings in NaNO₃ by changing the pH or by addition of kinetin, molybdenum or ascorbic acid as supplements were completely unsuccessful. When seedlings growing in NH₄NO₃ for varying periods were transferred to NaNO₃, it was found that those plants allowed to grow for 60 or more days in NH₄NO₃ could resume normal growth thereafter in NaNO₃. Determination of the nitrate reductase activity in seedlings of different ages grown in NaNO₃, after NH₄NO₃, showed that the ability of the seedlings to assimilate inorganic nitrogen was paralleled by the appearance of the enzyme.     

不同糖源及糖水平对大菱鲆糖代谢酶活性的影响

采用34双因素实验设计, 以初始质量为(8.060.08) g的大菱鲆幼鱼(Scophthalmus maximus L.)为对象, 研究在饲料中添加3种糖源(葡萄糖、蔗糖和糊精)及4个水平(0、5%、15%、28%)对大菱鲆肝脏糖酵解关键酶己糖激酶(HK)、葡萄糖激酶(GK)、磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)、丙酮酸激酶(PK)和糖异生关键酶磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧激酶(PEPCK)、1, 6-二磷酸果糖酶(FBPase)活性的影响。结果表明: 饲料糖添加量从0升高到15%时, 大菱鲆的糖酵解酶GK和PK活性随饲料葡萄糖或糊精含量的增加而增加; 当饲料中葡萄糖或糊精含量为28%时, GK和PK活性有下降的趋势。3种糖源的4个添加水平对HK和PFK活性均无显著影响(P 0.05)。添加不同水平的葡萄糖对大菱鲆糖异生途径的PEPCK活性无显著影响(P 0.05), 但在饲料中葡萄糖添加量为5%时显著促进了FBPase活性(P 0.05), 当葡萄糖添加量升高为15%或28%时, FBPase活性与对照组无显著差异(P 0.05)。糊精作为饲料糖源时抑制了大菱鲆肝脏FBPase和PEPCK的活性, 而添加不同水平的蔗糖对FBPase和PEPCK活性的影响均不显著(P 0.05)。总的来说, 从大菱鲆幼鱼肝脏糖代谢角度而言, 在饲料中添加15%的葡萄糖或糊精时, 可以有效促进大菱鲆肝脏糖酵解能力; 较添加葡萄糖, 糊精在促进大菱鲆肝脏糖酵解的同时对糖异生存在一定程度的抑制。蔗糖作为饲料糖源时, 仅在添加量为28%时显著促进糖酵解酶GK活性, 糖酵解其他酶活性以及糖异生酶活性均不受蔗糖水平的显著影响。       

NIACIN BIOSYNTHESIS IN GERMINATING×LAELIOCATTLEYA ORCHID EMBRYOS AND YOUNG SEEDLINGS

The roles of tryptophan, kynurenne, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, and quinolinic acid as niacin precursors were investigated by assessing their germination and growth-promoting effects in orchid embryo and seedling cultures. Only niacin, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, quinolinic acid and kynurenine exhibited a growth-promoting effect on seedlings of all ages. Tryptophan inhibited the growth of 70-day-old seedlings but enhanced growth of older seedlings. The data presented are interpreted to be consistent with the hypothesis that orchids may synthesize their niacin by a pathway similar to that of certain bacteria, fungi, birds, and mammals.     

POST-POLLINATION PHENOMENA IN ORCHID FLOWERS. IV. EFFECTS OF ETHYLENE

Treatment of Cymbidium (Orchidaceae) flowers with 10/μl/liter ethylene for up to 78 hr induces anthocyanin formation in both gynostemia (columns) and labella (lips). After that, pigment levels decrease. During 24-hr exposures, ethylene concentrations of 0.1, 1, and 10μl/ liter cause increased anthocyanin levels in both lips and columns. Ethylene also brings about color changes in the calli and wilting of the perianth, but it does not cause straightening of gynostemia and stigmatic closure. Emasculation effects are similar to those of ethylene, whereas pollination and NAA induce anthocyanin formation and closing of stigmas, as well as swelling and loss of curvature in gynostemia. The effects of ethylene are correlated with its action in other systems.     

涝渍胁迫对喜树幼苗形态和生理的影响

为了解喜树对涝渍土壤条件的适应性, 通过温室土培盆栽试验, 从形态和生理两方面探讨了涝渍胁迫对1年生喜树(Camptotheca acuminata)实生苗的影响, 试验分对照、轻度渍水、渍水和淹水等4个处理, 处理时间为 21 d。结果表明, 喜树根系生长以轻度渍水最好, 其次为对照, 而渍水和淹水的处理初生根系逐渐腐烂、死亡, 与之相对应, 轻度渍水处理的根系活力与对照无显著差异, 但渍水和淹水处理随着处理时间的延长逐渐下降, 同时观察到渍水和淹水的喜树茎在水面以下部位出现较多的皮孔。随着处理时间的延长, 轻度渍水处理喜树叶片内POD和SOD活性一直保持较高水平, 渍水和淹水处理则表现出先升高后下降的趋势, 各个处理叶片中O₂^-· 、H₂O₂和MDA含量有逐渐升高的趋势, 且各处理之间均表现为淹水>渍水>轻度淹水>对照。各处理根系LDH活性在处理前期较对照低, 而在处理的中后期, LDH活性均比对照高, 以渍水和淹水处理最高。因此, 喜树在轻度渍水条件下, 一方面由于皮孔和不定根的增多, 根系能够获得更多的氧气, 另一方面由于POD和SOD抗氧化酶活性的增强, 降低了O₂^-·和H₂O₂对细胞的伤害, 喜树能够在轻度渍水的立地上正常生长。     

增温对川西亚高山针叶林内不同光环境下红桦和岷江冷杉幼苗生长和生理的影响

 川西亚高山针叶林是青藏高原东部高寒林区的重要组成部分, 也是研究全球变化对森林生态系统影响的重要森林类型。开展亚高山针叶林不同树种对气候变暖响应差异的研究, 可为预测未来气候变暖背景下亚高山针叶林植被组成和森林动态提供科学依据。我们以川西亚高山针叶林两种主要树种——红桦(Betula albo-sinensis)和岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana)为研究材料, 采用开顶式增温法(Open-top chamber, OTC)模拟气候变暖, 研究了增温对全光条件和林下低光环境中(约为全光的10%)生长的红桦和岷江冷杉幼苗生长和生理的影响。在人工林环境下, OTC使增温框内平均气温和地表温度分别升高了0.51和0.33 ℃; 而在林外空地处, OTC使二者分别升高了0.69和0.41 ℃。研究结果显示, 增温总体上促进了两种幼苗的生长和生理过程, 并促使幼苗将更多的生物量投入到其同化部位——叶, 使幼苗的根冠比(R/S)显著降低。增温通过增加叶片的光合色素含量和表观量子效率等光合参数, 促进了幼苗的光合过程和生长。然而, 增温对两种幼苗生长和生理的影响效果与植物种类及其所处的光环境有关。增温仅在林外全光条件下显著影响红桦幼苗的生长和生理过程。岷江冷杉幼苗对增温的响应与红桦相反, 即增温仅在林下低光环境下对岷江冷杉幼苗的生长和生理过程有明显促进作用。这种响应差异可能赋予这两种植物在未来气候变暖背景下面对外界环境变化时具有不同的适应能力和竞争优势, 从而对亚高山针叶林生态系统物种组成和森林动态产生潜在影响。     

WITHIN- AND BETWEEN-GENERATION EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON THE MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

We investigated the effects of developmental and parental temperatures on several physiological and morphological traits of adult Drosophila melanogaster. Flies for the parental generation were raised at either low or moderate temperature (18°C or 25°C) and then mated in the four possible sex-by-parental temperature crosses. Their offspring were raised at either 18°C or 25°C and then scored as adults for morphological (dry body mass, wing size, and abdominal melanization [females only]), physiological (knock-down temperature, and thermal dependence of walking speed), and life history (egg size) traits. The experiment was replicated, and the factorial design allows us to determine whether and how paternal, maternal, and developmental temperatures (as well as offspring sex) influence the various traits. Sex and developmental temperature had major effects on all traits. Females had larger bodies and wings, higher knock-down temperatures, and slower speeds (but similar shaped performance curves) than males. Development at 25°C (versus at 18°C) increased knock-down temperature, increased maximal speed and thermal performance breadth, decreased the optimal temperature for walking, decreased body mass and wing size, reduced abdominal melanization, and reduced egg size. Parental temperatures influenced a few traits, but the effects were generally small relative to those of sex or developmental temperature. Flies whose mother had been raised at 25°C (versus at 18°C) had slightly higher knock-down temperature and smaller body mass. Flies whose father had been raised at 25°C had relatively longer wings. The effects of paternal, maternal, and developmental temperatures sometimes differed in direction. The existence of significant within- and between-generation effects suggests that comparative studies need to standardize thermal environments for at least two generations, that attempts to estimate “field” heritabilities may be unreliable for some traits, and that predictions of short-term evolutionary responses to selection will be difficult.     

MORPHOMETRY OF ORCHID SEEDS. II. NATIVE CALIFORNIA AND RELATED SPECIES OF CALYPSO,CEPHALANTHERA, CORALLORHIZA AND EPIPACTIS

A study of Calypso, Cephalanthera, Corallorhiza and Epipactis seeds suggests that morphometric analysis can be useful as a taxonomic tool and an indicator of developmental patterns.     

Devlopmental Physiology of Sugar-Beet: II. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND NITROGEN SUPPLY ON THE GROWTH, SOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT AND NITROGEN CONTENT OF LEAVES AND ROOTS

Plants were grown at temperatures of 15 and 25 ?C with two ratesof nitrogen supply. The changes in dry weight, leaf area, cellnumber, mean cell volume, soluble carbohydrate, and total nitrogenconcentration of the cotyledons, the first and second pair oftrue leaves, and the storage root were measured. Changes incell number and cell volume of the first pair of true leavesand storage root of plants were also measured at 11, 18, 25,and 32 ?C. Leaf growth before unfolding was chiefly by increase in cellnumber and after unfolding by increase in mean cell volume,while the growth of the storage root was almost entirely byincrease in cell number. The rates of cell division and cellexpansion were fastest at 25 ?C, but the initially high ratesof cell division in the terminal bud and in individual leavesdecreased rapidly and greater rates were maintained at the sub-optimaltemperatures, i.e. 15 and 18 ?C. After an initial period ofslow growth, the first-formed leaves grew faster and becamelarger at 15 than at 25 ?C. Leaves were produced, unfolded,grew faster, and became larger with increase in the externalconcentration of nitrogen, because cells divided and expandedfaster, so that nitrogen increased the number and size of cells. Sugar concentration was greater at 15 than at 25 ?C in leavesbut not in the storage root. Sugar concentration in the petiolesof the first and second pair of true leaves increased to 1.2and 2.0 per cent fresh weight respectively. Decreased nitrogensupply temporarily increased the sugar concentration of cotyledonpetioles and the seedling hypocotyl, but later decreased itin the leaves and storage root. Nitrogen concentration was greaterin the leaves and storage root at 15 than at 25 ?C with thelarger nitrogen supply. Nitrogen concentrations were similarin young leaves of all treatments but as the size of leavesincreased nitrogen concentrations decreased most rapidly at25 ?C with the smaller nitrogen supply. It is suggested that when increased leaf production and storage-rootgrowth occurs at temperatures below the growth optimum (25 ?C),they may be due to an effect of increased carbohydrate supplyon cell division and sugar storage.