蜜环菌索发育的研究

利用光学和电子显徽镜对蜜环菌索的发育及其结构分化进行了较系统研究。菌索的顶端有保持细胞不断分裂的分生组织区。由此衍生的菌丝细胞组成菌索的初生结构,包括分化不明显的表皮、皮层及初生髓;初生髓细胞体积大,核同步分裂产生多核体细胞,以一个或几个核为单位在爵体细胞中分化出细长的菌丝后,可以出芽方式自母体细胞中伸出,并且一开始就有薄壁与厚壁之分,同一母体细胞中可同时产生这两类菌丝。发育后期母体细胞破裂形成菌索的髓,两类疏松菌丝分布在其中。观察了成熟菌索的结构和侧枝的形成过程。菌索侧枝起源于皮层细胞,该细胞横向分裂首先形成分枝原基,之后突破菌索壳而分化出新的菌索顶端。讨论了蜜环菌索在不同寄主中的侵染方式。     

Regulation of apical dominance in Aspergillus nidulans hyphae by reactive oxygen species

In fungal hyphae, apical dominance refers to the suppression of secondary polarity axes in the general vicinity of a growing hyphal tip. The mechanisms underlying apical dominance remain largely undefined, although calcium signaling may play a role. Here, we describe the localized accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the apical region of Aspergillus nidulans hyphae. Our analysis of atmA (ATM) and prpA (PARP) mutants reveals a correlation between localized production of ROS and enforcement of apical dominance. We also provide evidence that NADPH oxidase (Nox) or related flavoproteins are responsible for the generation of ROS at hyphal tips and characterize the roles of the potential Nox regulators NoxR, Rac1, and Cdc42 in this process. Notably, our genetic analyses suggest that Rac1 activates Nox, whereas NoxR and Cdc42 may function together in a parallel pathway that regulates Nox localization. Moreover, the latter pathway may also include Bem1, which we propose represents a p40phox analog in fungi. Collectively, our results support a model whereby localized Nox activity generates a pool of ROS that defines a dominant polarity axis at hyphal tips.     

Simple staining detects ultrastructural and biochemical differentiation of vegetative hyphae and fruit body initials in colonies of Pleurotus pulmonarius

AIMS: To know the ultrastructural and biochemical differences of vegetative hyphae and fruit body initials in colonies of Pleurotus pulmonarius. METHODS AND RESULTS: Feulgen reagent was used to detects differentiation of hyphae. The intracellular laccases, proteases and beta-1,3-glucanases activity, content of cytoplasmic protein, glycogen and glucans in the cell wall were evaluated in hyphae of fruit body initials and in vegetative hyphae. The thickness of hyphal walls of the vegetative hyphae was also evaluated. Substantial biochemical changes were observed in hyphae of different zones of the fruiting colony. Hyphae at the periphery had thinner walls than in the centre of the colony. CONCLUSION, SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Staining correlated with the enzymatic activity, protein, glycogen and glucans, in mycelium and in fruit body initials. The implications are that hyphal maturity in P. pulmonarius involves storage of glucans, in part at least, in the form of a thickened hyphal wall.     

Protoplasmic Organization of Hyphal Tips Among Fungi: Vesicles and Spitzenkörper

Hyphal tips of fungi representing Oömycetes, Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Deuteromycetes were examined by light and electron microscopy and compared with respect to their protoplasmic organization. In all fungi studied, there is a zone at the hyphal apex which is rich in cytoplasmic vesicles but nearly devoid of other cell components. Some vesicle profiles are continuous with the plasma membrane at the apices of these tip-growing cells. The subapical zones of hyphae contain an endomembrane system which includes smooth-surfaced cisternae associated with small clusters of vesicles. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that vesicles produced by the endomembrane system in the subapical region become concentrated in the apex where they are incorporated at the expanding surface. Septate fungi (Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Deuteromycetes) have an apical body (Spitzenkörper) which is associated with growing hyphal tips. In electron micrographs of these fungi, an additional specialized region within the accumulation of apical vesicles is shown for the first time. This region corresponds on the bases of distribution among fungi, location in hyphae, size, shape and boundary characteristics to the Spitzenkörper seen by light microscopy. This structure is not universally associated with tip growth, whereas apical vesicles are widespread among tip-growing systems.     

Structure and Development of the Endophyte in the Parasitic Angiosperm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cuscuta japonica</Emphasis>

The endophyte, that is, the haustorial part within the tissues of the host plant Impatiens balsamina, of the parasitic angiosperm Cuscuta japonica was studied with light and electron microscopy. The endophyte consisted mainly of vacuolated parenchymatous axial cells and elongate, superficial (epidermal) cells. Then the elongate, epidermal cells separated from each other and transformed into filamentous cells, called searching hyphae. The hyphae grew independently either intercellularly or intracellularly in the host parenchyma. The apical end of the hyphal cells was characterized by conspicuous, large nuclei with enlarged nucleoli and very dense cytoplasm with abundant organelles, suggesting that the hyphal cells penetrating host tissue were metabolically very active. Numerous osmiophilic particles and chloroplasts were noted in the hyphae. The osmiophilic particles were assumed to be associated with elongation of the growing hyphe. Plasmodemata connections between the searching hyphal cells of the parasite and the host parenchyma cells were not detected. Hyphal cells that reached the host xylem differentiated into water-conducting xylic hyphae by thickening of the secondary walls. A xylem bridge connecting the parasite and the host was confirmed from serial sections. Some hyphal cells that reached the host phloem differentiated into nutrient-conducting phloic hyphae. Phloic hyphae had a thin layer of peripheral cytoplasm with typical features of sieve-tube members in autotrophic angiosperms, i.e., parallel arrays of smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and plastids with starch granules. Interspecific open connections via the sieve pores of the host sieve elements and plasmodesmata of the parasite phloic hyphae were very rarely observed, indicating that the symplastic translocation of assimilate to the parasite from the host occurred.     

Morphological characteristics of sclerotia formed from hyphae of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Grifola umbellata</Emphasis> under artificial conditions

The morphological characteristics of sclerotia were induced in cultures of the fungus Grifola umbellata by introducing an unidentified companion fungus were studied by light microscope, scanning and transmission electron microscope (SEM and TEM). Light microscope and SEM investigations of developing sclerotia revealed that aerial mycelial hyphae diminished with age, and mature sclerotia had two tissue layers, the rind and medulla. The medulla was comprised of thin and thick-walled hyphae of varying diameter. The thick-walled cells always formed below the hyphal tips. Retraction of the cytoplasm was accompanied by the thickening of cell wall. There were crystalline initials in the newly formed sclerotium. Crystalline initials were always formed in the tip of medullary hyphae and were not of regular shape. A series of changes occurred in the cells in which the crystalline initials would be formed, such as enlargement of size, formation of one or several large vacuoles. Crystalline initials developed via amorphous materials in the cytoplasm deposited in the vacuoles. At last crystalline initials was released by degradation of the cell wall.     

Apical hyphal extension in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2).

Hyphal extension in the filamentous actinomycete Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) was shown to occur by addition of newly synthesized wall material in an apical extension zone. Incubation of mycelia with tritiated N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc), a precursor of peptidoglycan, resulted in localized incorporation of label at the apex, as indicated by light microscopic and electron microscopic autoradiography. Within the hyphal extension zone there was a sharp decrease in incorporation with increasing distance from the apex. Hyphal tip shape, examined by low-temperature scanning electron microscopy, approximated to a semi-ellipsoid of revolution and was not hemispherical. Tip shape could be represented accurately by polynomial equations of degree less than seven. The surface stress theory was successfully applied to hyphal tip growth, with tip shape related qualitatively to the inverse of surface tension within the wall of the extension zone. Surface tension was assumed to be inversely proportional to the rate of incorporation of tritiated GlcNAc. Treatment of surface-grown hyphae with beta-lactam antibiotics resulted in localized swelling of hyphal tips. Lysozyme caused swelling of tips and of other regions of hyphae, frequently giving a beaded morphology associated with septa.     

Hyphal tip organization inAllomyces arbuscula

Summary Light and electron microscopic observations on vegetative hyphae ofAllomyces arbuscula revealed the specialized organization of the tip. There were some minor differences related to culture conditions, but the main ultrastructural features common to all hyphal tips disclosed a special type of organization distinct from that of other fungi. A crescent-shaped apical zone consisted of vesicles and membrane cisternae embedded in a granular matrix. Vesicles fused with the apical plasmalemma and presumably contributed to its expansion and to wall growth. The apical zone contained few ribosomes and generally no other organelles. Mitochondria were concentrated in the immediate subapical zone and scattered through the remainder of the hyphae, as were microbodies. Microtubules formed an asterlike structure with its center in the apical zone. Proximally of the apex, microtubules were axially oriented. Nuclei occurred only a certain distance from the tip. The elements of the apex may maintain the polarity of the hyphae via a gradient and hold it in a state of vegetative growth.     

Image analysis of hyphal morphogenesis in Saprolegniaceae (Oomycetes)

Because of their wide range of apical morphology, several members of saprolegniaceous fungi (Oomycetes) were chosen to examine concordance with the vesicle supply center (VSC) model of hyphal morphogenesis. Two computer routines were devised to measure diameter changes over long stretches of hyphae and to test compatibility with the theoretical hyphoid shape, y = xcot(xV/N). In all four genera examined, the apex followed closely the contour described by the hyphoid equation; divergences became evident in the subapex. The hyphae of Saprolegnia parasitica showed maximum concordance with the VSC model, i.e., their profile matched a hyphoid curve from the apex to the entire length of the mature hyphal tube. In Aphanomyces and Leptolegnia, growth in the subapical region subsided becoming less than that specified by the hyphoid equation. In Achlya bisexualis, the reverse was true, the subapical region expanded beyond that specified by the hyphoid equation. The two divergent subapical tendencies gave the hyphal tips a cylindroid or conoid appearance, respectively. Since the hyphal apex of all four species conformed to the curvature dictated by the hyphoid equation, we concluded that a basic VSC mechanism operates in all of these oomycetous fungi. Accordingly, we suggest that the shape of an oomycetous hypha is generated by a VSC-driven gradient of wall formation, which is subject to additional modification in the subapex to produce a range of hyphal tip morphologies. The mathematical basis for generating a conoid hyphal tip by elongating the VSC is described in Appendix A.     

Teliospores of smut fungi general aspects of teliospore walls and sporogenesis

Summary The concept and nomenclature for the elements of teliospore walls in smut fungi are presented and a survey of teliosporogenesis is given, as seen by light and transmission electron microscopy. Four developmental types are distinguished: the Ustilago, Microbotryum, Tilletia, and Entorrhiza type. In the Ustilago type, sporogenous hyphae are completely segmented into teliospore initials which are embedded in a hyaline matrix formed by gelatinised hyphal walls (found in species ofAnthracoidea, Cintractia, Heterotolyposporium, Kuntzeomyces, Macalpinomyces, Melanopsichium, Sporisorium, Testicularia, Tolyposporium junci, Trichocintractia, and species ofUstilago infecting members of the family Poaceae). In the Microbotryum type, septate sporogenous hyphae are also completely segmented into teliospore initials, however, they are not surrounded by a hyaline matrix (Microbotryum, Sphacelotheca, Ustilago spp. infecting dicotyledons). A yeast-like budding of teliosporogenic cells is observed for some species ofMicrobotryum, Sphacelotheca, andUstilago infecting dicotyledons. In the Tilletia type, teliospores differentiate locally in the sporogenous hyphae, in an apical or intercalary position, without a hyaline matrix (Conidiosporomyces, Doassinga, Entyloma, Erratomyces, Ingoldiomyces, Neovossia, Oberwinkleria, Rhamphospora, Tilletia). In all these types, the teliospore initials first develop a hyaline sheath under which the ornamentation, the exosporium, sometimes a middle layer, and the endosporium are successively deposited by the fungal cell. In the Entorrhiza type, the teliospores develop inside vital host cells with the wall of the sporogenous hypha included into the teliospore wall. The fungus develops a middle layer and an electron-transparent endosporium inside the hyphal wall while a layer forming the ornamentation is deposited onto the hyphal wall, probably by vesicles of dictyosomes of the host cell.Part 164 in the series Studies in Heterobasidiomycetes from the Botanical Institute, University of Tübingen     

A Population-Based Morphologically Structured Model for Hyphal Growth and Product Formation in Streptomycin Fermentation

Summary A population model discriminating the hyphae according to the hyphal length and a morphologically structured model considering the specific function of different morphological forms of a hypha are combined together to describe mycelial growth, substrate consumption and secondary metabolite formation in streptomycin fermentation. In the population model, the growth modes of hyphae with different age or length are considered, while in the morphologically structured model, the morphological forms of hyphae and their functions in growth and metabolism are described. The population model and the morphologically structured model are interrelated by a branching function and a differentiation function. In the model, the growth rate of immature apical compartment is distinguished from those of matured ones, branching is proposed to occur only in the subapical region, and the hyphal compartment is assumed to synthesize secondary metabolites. The model is successfully applied to simulate the batch fermentation process of streptomycin production. The growth characteristics of filamentous microorganisms are also discussed using the model predictions.     

HISTOCHEMISTRY OF THE RHIZOMORPH MERISTEM OF ARMILLARIA MELLEA

Histochemical studies disclose the presence of relatively large amounts of protein and nucleic acids in the apical region of the rhizomorph of Armillaria mellea. No specific center for the production of protein was noted, but nucleic acid studies suggest that RNA synthesis may be confined to a limited region of the rhizomorph tip. Intranuclear, crystalline protein bodies are present while selective fluorescent staining of DNA indicates that the relative amounts of that substance, per nucleus, may be quite small and may account for some of the difficulty in selective nuclear staining by more commonly employed methods. Large stores of glycogen in the area adjacent to the apical center and its apparent rapid turnover in that region implicates this polysaccharide as a participant in the differentiation of the primary medulla.     

种衣剂17号包衣对小麦条锈菌发育影响的超微结构研究

本研究采用电镜技术研究了种衣剂17号对小麦条锈菌发育的影响。观察结果表明,该种衣剂引起病菌和寄主细胞内发生了一系列变化。病菌菌丝和吸器内脂肪粒和液泡明显增加;菌丝壁和吸器壁呈不规则加厚;菌丝分枝处无隔膜产生或隔膜畸形;有的吸器母细胞产生的畸形入侵栓,大都不能穿透寄主细胞壁,初生吸器外间质内沉积有染色较深的物质,次生吸器可产生多个不规则分枝,但不能扩张膨大;菌丝外渗的物质可能引起寄主细胞的坏死;大多数受侵寄主细胞可分泌形成较大的胼胝质,有时寄主细胞分泌的物质可将吸器体完全包围起来。上述结果表明,种衣剂17号不仅可直接作用于条锈菌,而且也可通过影响寄主而间接地影响病菌。     

戊唑醇对赤霉病菌生长发育影响的细胞学和免疫细胞化学研究

本文采用电子显微镜和免疫细胞化学技术研究了三唑类杀菌剂戊唑醇 (Tebuconazole) 对小麦赤霉病菌Fusarium graminearum菌丝的形态结构、细胞壁成份和毒素产生的影响。结果表明,戊唑醇不但强烈抑制了培养基上菌丝的生长,而且可引起菌丝形态和结构的明显畸形。电镜观察发现,药剂处理后菌丝呈现不规则的肿胀、过度分枝;菌丝细胞壁不规则加厚,尤其是菌丝顶端部位加厚明显;菌丝形成的不完整隔膜增多,且隔膜壁不规则增厚;菌丝细胞内液泡增加、脂肪粒累积,细胞器排列紊乱,原生质最终坏死。有时在坏死菌丝内可发现新的子菌丝,但子菌丝细胞壁不规则加厚、细胞质坏死、也呈不正常状态,并可再度形成新的菌丝。免疫细胞化学标记表明,药剂处理后菌丝细胞中毒素的标记密度明显低于对照菌丝,表明毒素的产生受到了抑制;而菌丝细胞壁的主要成份几丁质和-1,3-葡聚糖的标记密度明显高于对照处理,表明药剂处理可引起菌丝细胞壁中几丁质和-1,3-葡聚糖的过度累积。     

Two distinct distributions of F-actin are present in the hyphal apex of the oomycete Achlya bisexualis

We show that two distinct distributions of F-actin are present in the hyphal apex of the oomycete Achlya bisexualis, that have been chemically fixed with a combination of methylglyoxal and formaldehyde and stained with Alexa phalloidin. In approximately one half of the hyphae examined, an F-actin depleted zone within the apical F-actin cap was observed. The remaining hyphae had a continuous apical cap. In live, growing hyphae two types of cytoplasmic organization were observed at the tips, one in which a clear zone was present which may correlate with the F-actin depleted zone, and one where no such clear zone existed which may represent the continuous cap. We suggest that the F-actin depleted zone may be a structural component of the actin network in a subpopulation of oomycete hyphae and may be comparable to similar F-actin depleted zones at the apices of other tip growing cells such as pollen tubes and root hairs. This observation has implications with regard to models of hyphal extension. Hyphae fixed with formaldehyde alone showed continuous apical F-actin caps. Our ability to resolve the F-actin depleted zone likely reflects the cross-linking capabilities of methylglyoxal. The methylglyoxal-formaldehyde combination fixative gave more stained hyphae, brighter staining and more complete staining of F-actin compared to formaldehyde alone.     

Membranous aggregations associated with nuclei inAspergillus flavus hyphae

Summary Different growth regions of young vegetative hyphae ofAspergillus flavus manifested structural modification of certain organelles, especially nuclei. In the apical and subapical zones the interphase nuclei had a normal, non-modified structure. In the region which was a few millimeters distant from the hyphal tip, besides normal nuclei there were some with altered morphology.Such an altered nucleus had electron lucent nuclear content and a membranous aggregate stacked against the nuclear membrane. The aggregate was made of flat, parallel membranes of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The membranous aggregate was also found in-between two nuclei and the stacking of membranes was highly orderly.     

Ultrastructural localization of acid phosphatase inPythium paroecandrum

Summary Four cytologically distinct zones defined by the type of vacuoles and vesicles present can be distinguished in young hyphae ofPythium paroecandrum. Acid phosphatase is not associated with the vesicles and the fibrillar vacuoles present in the first and second zones from the hyphal apex but is localized in the vacuoles with electron translucent contents in the third and fourth zones. Microbodies and mitochondria do not contain acid phosphatase. The association of acid phosphatase with vacuoles in fungi of various taxonomic groups is discussed.     

Association between microtubules and symbiotic fungal hyphae in protocorm cells of the orchid species, Spiranthes sinensis

Seeds of the orchid species, Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames, were sterilized and germinated in vitro with the symbiotic fungus Ceratobasidium cornigerum (Bourdot) Rogers. Colonized embryos developed into protocorms and these were examined for changes in microtubule arrays, after initial invasion of fungal hyphae into embryos and during peloton formation and degradation. Methods utilized to detect microtubules included immunofluorescence combined with laser scanning confocal microscopy, conventional transmission electron microscopy combined with morphometric analysis, and immunogold labelling. Microtubules were regularly found in close association with intracellular hyphae and degraded hyphal masses. Cortical microtubules disappear during peloton formation but reappear in cells that show fungal lysis. With conventional transmission electron microscopy and immunogold labelling the microtubules associated with fungal hyphae and degenerated hyphal masses were located close to the perifungal membrane that separates fungal hyphae from protocorm cytoplasm.     

Essential role of DivIVA in polar growth and morphogenesis in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2)

Streptomycetes grow by cell wall extension at hyphal tips. The molecular basis for such polar growth in prokaryotes is largely unknown. It is reported here that DivIVASC, the Streptomyces coelicolor homologue of the Bacillus subtilis protein DivIVA, is essential and directly involved in hyphal tip growth and morphogenesis. A DivIVASC-EGFP hybrid was distinctively localized to hyphal tips and lateral branches. Reduction of divIVASC expression to about 10% of the normal level produced a phenotype strikingly similar to that of many tip growth mutants in fungi, including irregular curly hyphae and apical branching. Overexpression of the gene dramatically perturbed determination of cell shape at the growing tips. Furthermore, staining of nascent peptidoglycan with a fluorescent vancomycin conjugate revealed that induction of overexpression in normal hyphae disturbed tip growth, and gave rise to several new sites of cell wall assembly, effectively causing hyperbranching. The results show that DivIVASC is a novel bacterial morphogene, and it is localized at or very close to the apical sites of peptidoglycan assembly in Streptomyces hyphae.