Using historical woodland creation to construct a long‐term,large‐scale natural experiment: the WrEN project

Natural experiments have been proposed as a way of complementing manipulative experiments to improve ecological understanding and guide management. There is a pressing need for evidence from such studies to inform a shift to landscape‐scale conservation, including the design of ecological networks. Although this shift has been widely embraced by conservation communities worldwide, the empirical evidence is limited and equivocal, and may be limiting effective conservation. We present principles for well‐designed natural experiments to inform landscape‐scale conservation and outline how they are being applied in the WrEN project, which is studying the effects of 160 years of woodland creation on biodiversity in UK landscapes. We describe the study areas and outline the systematic process used to select suitable historical woodland creation sites based on key site‐ and landscape‐scale variables – including size, age, and proximity to other woodland. We present the results of an analysis to explore variation in these variables across sites to test their suitability as a basis for a natural experiment. Our results confirm that this landscape satisfies the principles we have identified and provides an ideal study system for a long‐term, large‐scale natural experiment to explore how woodland biodiversity is affected by different site and landscape attributes. The WrEN sites are now being surveyed for a wide selection of species that are likely to respond differently to site‐ and landscape‐scale attributes and at different spatial and temporal scales. The results from WrEN will help develop detailed recommendations to guide landscape‐scale conservation, including the design of ecological networks. We also believe that the approach presented demonstrates the wider utility of well‐designed natural experiments to improve our understanding of ecological systems and inform policy and practice.     

Assessment and management of old-growth forests in south eastern Australia

Abstract

Old-growth forests in south eastern Australia are important for biodiversity conservation, recreation, carbon storage, social values and, to a declining extent, for timber production. Developing a comprehensive definition of old-growth forest that can apply across all Australian vegetation types has been challenging. Old growth can be viewed from ecological and social perspectives. For policy and management purposes old growth has been defined as a growth stage in forest development, incorporating ecological maturity and lack of evidence of past disturbance. Classification and assessment of old growth has largely been restricted to those areas covered by regional forest agreements (RFAs) between different states and the Federal Government. Old growth can be impacted by wildfire, timber harvesting, insect pests, diseases and other disturbances. Climate change will also present challenges for the future management of old-growth forests. There is increasing scientific understanding of the relationships between species, forest growth stage and old-growth forest attributes. To meet biodiversity conservation objectives, the management focus is shifting from assessing and protecting old-growth forests, to providing for forests across the landscape with old-growth attributes. This approach may be at odds with other conceptions of old growth based on notions of undisturbed systems free of human influence.     

北京市生态用地规划与管理对策

不合理土地开发加速了对自然生态系统的干扰和侵占,导致生态系统服务功能下降,危机区域生态安全,开展生态用地规划是构建区域生态安全格局的基础。合理规划和管理不同土地利用类型的数量和空间分布对区域可持续发展具有重要意义。目前我国广泛应用的土地利用分类体系主要以土地的社会经济属性为基础,忽视其生态属性,导致以提供生态系统服务为主、保障生态安全的土地缺乏保护机制,具有重要生态功能的土地得不到有效保护。以北京市为例,建立了北京市生态用地分类与规划的思路与程序,在明确北京市生态安全与生态系统服务功能的关系基础上分析了北京市生态系统服务功能重要性及其空间格局,并进行了北京市生态用地规划。研究规划了保障北京市生态安全的7类生态用地:地表水涵养与保护用地、地下水保护用地、生物多样性保护用地、水土保持用地、河流防护用地、公路防护用地和城市绿地,总面积5137.37km2,占北京市域面积的31.31%。最后从生态用地识别和划分、将生态用地融入土地利用分类体系、生态用地管理措施和对策3个方面探讨了生态用地规划和管理的方法与措施。研究结果为北京市土地利用规划和有效管理提供依据,也为其它地区的生态用地规划提供参考。     

生态系统修复国内外研究进展与展望

气候变化和人类活动的增加不仅导致生态系统退化、生物多样性丧失、生物圈资源供给能力降低, 而且极大地制约了社会经济的可持续发展。尽管在全世界范围内已实施了大量的保护工作, 但全球生态系统退化仍在继续, 逐渐成为备受关注的全球性问题。文章首先厘清生态系统修复的发展历程、相关概念与理论。其次, 归纳生态系统修复的全球议题, 涉及生态系统服务及其价值评估、生物多样性保护、应对气候变化与碳储存、自然保护地、监测体系与适应性管理、公平性与多主体参与等方面。然后, 总结我国森林、草原、河流与湿地、海洋与海岸带的生态系统退化问题与修复进展, 梳理生态保护红线、自然保护地生态系统修复和国土空间生态保护修复3种措施的进展与不足。最后, 对山水林田湖草沙一体化保护与系统治理、生态系统修复的多元融资政策与渠道、荒野生态保护修复的探索与实践、城镇生态系统修复的研究与应用以及生态系统修复对生物多样性的保护与维持等五个方面进行展望, 以期为我国进一步开展生态系统保护修复的相关研究与实践提供指导。     

Identifying spatial components of ecological and evolutionary processes for regional conservation planning in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa

Abstract. Conservation seeks ultimately to protect and maintain biodiversity indefinitely. Most biodiversity features targeted in past conservation planning have been largely aspects of ecological and biogeographical pattern rather than process. However, the persistence of biodiversity can only be ensured through consideration of the ecological and evolutionary processes that underpin biodiversity, as well as its present spatial pattern. This paper identifies spatial surrogates of ecological and evolutionary processes for regional conservation planning in one of the world's biodiversity hotspots, the Cape Floristic Region. We identified six types of spatial components (namely edaphic interfaces, upland–lowland interfaces, sand movement corridors, riverine corridors, upland–lowland gradients and macroclimatic gradients) as surrogates for key processes such as ecological and geographical diversification, and species migration. Spatial components were identified in a GIS using published data and expert knowledge. Options for achieving targets for process components have been seriously compromised by habitat transformation. Between 30 and 75% of the original extent of the spatial components currently remain functional. Options for achieving upland–lowland and macroclimatic gradients are very limited in the lowlands where most of the habitat has been transformed by agriculture. We recommend that future studies place their research on ecological and evolutionary processes in a spatially explicit framework. Areas maintaining adaptive diversification (e.g. environmental gradients, ecotones) or containing historically isolated populations should be identified and protected. The spatial dimensions of eco-logical processes such as drought and fire refugia also need to be determined and such insights incorporated in conservation planning. Finally, connectivity within these areas should be ensured to maintain species migration and gene flow.     

Retracted: Each of the chloroplast potassium efflux antiporters affects photosynthesis and growth of fully developed Arabidopsis rosettes under short‐day photoperiod

In Arabidopsis thaliana, the chloroplast harbors three potassium efflux antiporters (KEAs), namely KEA1 and KEA2 in the inner envelope and KEA3 in the thylakoid membrane. They may play redundant physiological roles as in our previous analyses of young developing Arabidopsis rosettes under long‐day photoperiod (16 h light per day), chloroplast kea single mutants resembled the wild‐type plants, whereas kea1kea2 and kea1kea2kea3 mutants were impaired in chloroplast development and photosynthesis resulting in stunted growth. Here, we aimed to study whether chloroplast KEAs play redundant roles in chloroplast function of older Arabidopsis plants with fully developed rosettes grown under short‐day photoperiod (8 h light per day). Under these conditions, we found defects in photosynthesis and growth in the chloroplast kea single mutants, and most dramatic defects in the kea1kea2 double mutant. The mechanism behind these defects in the single mutants involves reduction in the electron transport rate (kea1 and kea3), and stomata conductance (kea1, kea2 and kea3), which in turn affect CO₂ fixation rates. The kea1kea2 mutant, in addition to these alterations, displayed reduced levels of photosynthetic machinery. Taken together, our data suggest that, in addition to the previously reported roles in chloroplast development in young rosettes, each chloroplast KEA affects photosynthesis and growth of Arabidopsis fully developed rosettes.     

Comprehensive criteria for biodiversity evaluation in conservation planning

In this paper we present the results of a multi-criteria decision analysis used to identify a comprehensive set of criteria for assigning biodiversity value to sites for conservation planning. For effective conservation management, biodiversity value needs to be a composite of biotic and abiotic factors. However, in the reserve design literature, conservation value is assigned with a limited set of metrics usually based on comprehensiveness, representativeness and persistence which may be insufficient at fully capturing biodiversity value. A group of conservation specialists in California, USA, used a multi-criteria decision making framework to elucidate and weight criteria for scoring biodiversity value at sites. A formal model for consensus and negotiation was applied to aggregate individuals’ criteria weights across all group members. The group identified ecological condition, followed by biotic composition as the most important contributors to site conservation value. Long- and short-term threats causing fragmentation and degradation are also important criteria to consider. Key criteria are identified for which further data collection would serve the greatest purpose in prioritizing sites and the role of prioritization criteria in the larger context of systematic conservation planning is discussed. With the recognition that biodiversity value plays an important role in conservation decisions, the criteria presented here represents a comprehensive suite of factors to consider when assigning biodiversity value to sites for conservation planning. These can serve as an encompassing list which other groups can customize for the purpose of biodiversity evaluation for alternative conservation planning contexts.     

景观中心度及其在生态网络规划与管理中的应用

构建连续性生态网络已成为生物多样性保护、生态环境安全管理、游憩和历史文化资源保护的重要景观规划策略,其规划与管理已受到广泛关注.关键景观组分的识别是生态网络规划与管理的重点和难点,为解决这一问题,本文借鉴图论网络分析理论提出了景观中心度的概念及度量方法,并探讨了景观中心度在生态网络规划与管理中的应用内容和框架.景观中心度方法虽然可为景观规划与管理中关键景观要素的确定和连续生态网络的构建提供新途径,但仍需从指标的生态意义、实验数据的分析和简单通用的分析软件等方面对该方法进行验证和完善.     

The ecosystem functioning dimension in conservation: insights from remote sensing

An important goal of conservation biology is the maintenance of ecosystem processes. Incorporating quantitative measurements of ecosystem functions into conservation practice is important given that it provides not only proxies for biodiversity patterns, but also new tools and criteria for management. In the satellite era, the translation of spectral information into ecosystem functional variables expands and complements the more traditional use of satellite imagery in conservation biology. Remote sensing scientists have generated accurate techniques to quantify ecosystem processes and properties of key importance for conservation planning such as primary production, ecosystem carbon gains, surface temperature, albedo, evapotranspiration, and precipitation use efficiency; however, these techniques are still unfamiliar to conservation biologists. In this article, we identify specific fields where a remotely-sensed characterization of ecosystem functioning may aid conservation science and practice. Such fields include the management and monitoring of species and populations of conservation concern; the assessment of ecosystem representativeness and singularity; the use of protected areas as reference sites to assess global change effects; the implementation of monitoring and warning systems to guide adaptive management; the direct evaluation of supporting ecosystem services; and the planning and monitoring of ecological restorations. The approaches presented here illustrate feasible ways to incorporate the ecosystem functioning dimension into conservation through the use of satellite-derived information.     

国内外城市生物多样性评价与提升研究综述

城市生物多样性水平是反映人与自然和谐共处水平的重要指标,对促进城市可持续发展有着重要意义。城市及其基础设施的扩张改变了土地原有的生态系统、水文状况和地表结构,不断加快的城市化进程对生物多样性造成了严重影响,城市生物多样性保护已成为当下城市生态建设中重要且紧迫的工作。与传统的生物多样性研究不同,城市生物多样性保护工作以保护生物多样性为前提,争取科学利用生物多样性为城市带来更广泛的经济效益和社会效益。当前城市生物多样性研究成果丰富且涉及层面多元,但仍面临缺乏系统性、整体性评价框架以及跨界、多尺度管理等关键问题。故对国内外城市生物多样性的状况评价、效益评价和提升路径三方面的相关研究进行综述,总结当前城市生物多样性评价的标准与方法,并从城市生物多样性保护面对的主要挑战出发,梳理介绍国际合作、国家政策、城市规划、专项保护以及基于自然的解决方案等角度的城市生物多样性提升路径。讨论了城市生物多样性的关注点与未来研究方向,并对城市生物多样性保护提出政策建议,为各地编制生物多样性保护规划和开展城市生物多样性保护工作提供借鉴,以期促进城市生物多样性保护和人与自然的协调发展。     

关于中国淡水生态系统生物多样性监测与管理的探讨

China is one of the countries in the world with therichest species biodiversityinfreshwater ecosystem.How-ever,duetothe rapid economic growthandthe continuingincrease of human disturbances and destructions of aquatichabitats,the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystemsis dras-tically declining.Waterbodies become more and more“deserted”of sensitive species.Water areas are reduced,fragmentized,and changed in their hydrodynamics(i.e.damming),causing changes in sedimentation and otherchanges.Forinstance,the area o...     

土地利用与生物多样性绩效研究及对风景园林规划的借鉴

在当今世界土地资源极度紧缺的大背景下,研究不同土地利用情景下的生物多样性,评估其达到生物多样性预期目标的能力,已成为土地规划领域的重要研究方向,具有重要的理论研究意义和实践价值。本文在大量文献研究的基础上,简要分析了土地利用对生物多样性的作用机理,详细总结了土地类型组成、土地利用连接度、土地利用强度与土地利用聚合度4个关键性因子对生物多样性绩效影响的研究现状。针对现有研究进展,从多样性指标、生态机制、时空异质性、参与情景模拟、非线性系统规律5个方面阐述了如何进一步完善土地利用与生物多样性的研究内容。研究结果表明,土地利用与生物多样性绩效的关系符合复杂适应性系统在风景园林规划中运用的规律,满足构建研究规划协同实践的概念性框架。进而重点从引导以生物多样性保护为重要目标的用地控制策略、建立多尺度一体化的生物多样性保护格局、发挥不同尺度蓝—绿网络体系的载体作用、构建区域层面的生物多样性发展骨架、提高城市环境下生物多样性的引导措施、推进不确定性规划减少决策风险6个方面提出了土地利用—生物多样性绩效关联分析对风景园林规划中可资借鉴的思考。     

生物多样性保护适应气候变化的管理策略

应对气候变化和保护生物多样性是2大全球性热点环境问题。气候变化导致物种多样性丧失、生态系统服务降低和区域生态安全屏障功能受损,威胁到中国国土生态安全格局和生态脆弱区域的可持续发展,给生物多样性保护带来新的挑战。做好生物多样性保护适应气候变化的风险管理工作,既是生物多样性应对气候变化风险的必要措施,也是减缓气候变化的重要途径。结合爱知目标10的实现情况,分析了欧盟、澳大利亚、美国等发达国家发布的生物多样性适应气候变化技术政策制定情况、中国生物多样性应对气候变化进展情况,剖析了中国生物多样性保护适应气候变化存在的问题,包括生物多样性应对气候变化的科学认知亟待提高、生物多样性保护适应气候变化的能力建设不足、自然保护地之间缺乏适应气候变化的生态廊道网络、生物多样性保护适应气候变化的技术标准缺乏。研究提出了中国生物多样性应对气候变化的适应性管理策略,包括制定《中国生物多样性保护协同应对气候变化的国家方案》、加强生物多样性保护适应气候变化的能力建设、开展自然保护区适应气候变化的风险管理试点、强化生物多样性应对气候变化的科技支撑,以期为推进纳入气候变化风险管理的生物多样性保护工作提供决策依据。     

Integrating theory into disturbance interaction experiments to better inform ecosystem management

Managing multiple, interacting disturbances is a key challenge to biodiversity conservation, and one that will only increase as global change drivers continue to alter disturbance regimes. Theoretical studies have highlighted the importance of a mechanistic understanding of stressor interactions for improving the prediction and management of interactive effects. However, many conservation studies are not designed or interpreted in the context of theory and instead focus on case‐specific management questions. This is a problem as it means that few studies test the relationships highlighted in theoretical models as being important for ecological management. We explore the extent of this problem among studies of interacting disturbances by reviewing recent experimental studies of the interaction between fire and grazing in terrestrial ecosystems. Interactions between fire and grazing can occur via a number of pathways; one disturbance can modify the other's likelihood, intensity or spatial distribution, or one disturbance can alter the other's impacts on individual organisms. The strength of such interactions will vary depending on disturbance attributes (e.g. size or intensity), and this variation is likely to be nonlinear. We show that few experiments testing fire–grazing interactions are able to identify the mechanistic pathway driving an observed interaction, and most are unable to detect nonlinear effects. We demonstrate how these limitations compromise the ability of experimental studies to effectively inform ecological management. We propose a series of adjustments to the design of disturbance interaction experiments that would enable tests of key theoretical pathways and provide the deeper ecological understanding necessary for effective management. Such considerations are relevant to studies of a broad range of ecological interactions and are critical to informing the management of disturbance regimes in the context of accelerating global change.     

Freshwater Reserves in Australia: Directions and Challenges for the Development of a Comprehensive,Adequate and Representative System of Protected Areas

The establishment of a system of protected areas that samples all ecosystems, including freshwater environments, in a comprehensive, adequate and representative (CAR) manner is regarded as a cornerstone for the conservation of biodiversity. There have been few quantitative assessments of the comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness of freshwater reserves in Australia. This paper reviews and quantifies the effect of classification of freshwater ecosystems for conservation planning, the importance of reservation status and protection measures for developing a CAR reserve system, and aspects of reserve design for freshwater ecosystems. We propose a strategic and iterative process that incorporates these measures to assist in the efficient and effective development of freshwater reserve systems worldwide. However, the provision of suitable water regimes for freshwater reserves presents further ecological and political challenges, and even adequate reservation of freshwater ecosystems may not conserve constituent biodiversity without effective management.     

Integrating multidirectional connectivity requirements in systematic conservation planning for freshwater systems

Aim Recent efforts to apply the principles of systematic conservation planning to freshwater ecosystems have focused on the special connected nature of these systems as a way to ensure adequacy (long‐term maintenance of biodiversity). Connectivity is important in maintaining biodiversity and key ecological processes in freshwater environments and is of special relevance for conservation planning in these systems. However, freshwater conservation planning has focused on longitudinal connectivity requirements within riverine ecosystems, while other habitats, such as floodplain wetlands or lakes and connections among them, have been overlooked. Here, we address this gap by incorporating a new component of connectivity in addition to the traditional longitudinal measure. Location Northern Australia. Methods We integrate lateral connections between freshwater areas (e.g. lakes and wetlands) that are not directly connected by the river network and the longitudinal upstream–downstream connections. We demonstrate how this can be used to incorporate ecological requirements of some water‐dependent taxa that can move across drainage divides, such as waterbirds. Results When applied together, the different connectivity rules allow the identification of priority areas that contain whole lakes or wetlands, their closest neighbours whenever possible, and the upstream/downstream reaches of rivers that flow into or from them. This would facilitate longitudinal and lateral movements of biota while minimizing the influence of disturbances potentially received from upstream or downstream reaches. Main conclusions This new approach to defining and applying different connectivity rules can help improve the adequacy of freshwater‐protected areas by enhancing movements of biodiversity within priority areas. The integration of multiple connectivity needs can also serve as a bridge to integrate freshwater and terrestrial conservation planning.     

Key factors and related principles in the conservation of large African carnivores

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