DELINQUENCY

Not all behavior problems develop into juvenile delinquency nor do all juvenile delinquents become adult criminals. Environment is not in itself the only determining factor in the development of delinquency; rather, environment may offer the opportunity for acting out conflicts in an antisocial way. Conflicts are dealt with by antisocial behavior patterns rather than through various neurotic defense mechanisms. There appears to be a defect in conscience.Parental roles are extremely important in helping the growing child develop those positive aspects of his personality which lead to adult maturity and adult happiness. Included in parental factors are the relationships of both parents to the child, not just in what is conscious and deliberate in the relationship, but in what also can occur unconsciously or without awareness in the relationship.     

Neuroendocrine and neurotransmitter correlates in children with antisocial behavior

When antisocial behavior becomes a persistent pattern that affects diverse domains of children's functioning, psychiatrists refer to oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD). The term disruptive behavior disorder (DBD) covers both ODD and CD. Research shows that in the absence of effective interventions, the prognosis for DBD children is relatively unfavorable: their disorder can extend into adolescence, manifest itself in delinquency, and convert into other psychiatric symptoms, such as addiction or personality disorders. Although environmental factors have traditionally attracted most attention in explaining the origin and persistence of DBDs, it is important not to overlook the vulnerability of the child in the development of antisocial behavior. Relatively few studies have been conducted on the neurobiological factors involved in the development of DBDs in children. In this paper, we explain how problems in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and serotonergic system functioning could be important factors in the behavioral problems of DBD children. Low fear of punishment and physiological underactivity may predispose antisocial individuals to seek out stimulation or take risks and may explain poor (social) conditioning and socialization. Findings consistent with this hypothesis are presented. Finally, we explain how stress in general, and adverse early life experiences in particular, could have an impact on the development of the HPA and serotonergic systems. An investigation of the neurobiological factors involved in antisocial behavior disorder might ultimately guide the development of new forms of intervention.     

Multicentre controlled trial of parenting groups for childhood antisocial behaviour in clinical practice

ObjectiveTo see whether a behaviourally based group parenting programme, delivered in regular clinical practice, is an effective treatment for antisocial behaviour in children.DesignControlled trial with permuted block design with allocation by date of referral.Setting Four local child and adolescent mental health services.Participants141 children aged 3-8 years referred with antisocial behaviour and allocated to parenting groups (90) or waiting list control (51).InterventionWebster-Stratton basic videotape programme administered to parents of six to eight children over 13-16 weeks. This programme emphasises engagement with parental emotions, rehearsal of behavioural strategies, and parental understanding of its scientific rationale.ResultsReferred children were highly antisocial (above the 97th centile on interview measure). Children in the intervention group showed a large reduction in antisocial behaviour; those in the waiting list group did not change (effect size between groups 1.06 SD (95% confidence interval 0.71 to 1.41), P<0.001). Parents in the intervention group increased the proportion of praise to ineffective commands they gave their children threefold, while control parents reduced it by a third (effect size between groups 0.76 (0.16 to 1.36), P=0.018). If the 31 children lost to follow up were included in an intention to treat analysis the effect size on antisocial behaviour was reduced by 16%.ConclusionsParenting groups effectively reduce serious antisocial behaviour in children in real life conditions. Follow up is needed to see if the children''s poor prognosis is improved and criminality prevented.

What is already known on this topic

Children who persistently display a high level of antisocial behaviour are at high risk of social rejection, juvenile delinquency, and long term unemployment; the cost to society is highWhile some behaviourally based parenting programmes have been shown to be effective in university centre trials with volunteers or specially selected cases, most trials of psychological treatments for children in real life settings have shown no effect

What this study adds

An evidence based intervention is available for use in regular clinical practice that effectively reduces antisocial behaviour in referred childrenThe intervention works well with children at risk of criminality from a combination of highly antisocial behaviour, multiple psychopathology, and social deprivation     

Examining affinities of the Taung child by developmental simulation

As a well-preserved juvenile and the type specimen of Australopithecus africanus, the Taung child figures prominently in taxonomic, ontogenetic, and phylogenetic analyses of fossil hominins. Despite general agreement about allocation of Sterkfontein and Makapansgat fossils to this species, limited morphological comparisons have been possible between these adult specimens and the juvenile Taung. Here, we used developmental simulation to estimate the adult form of the Taung child, and directly compare its morphology to that of other fossil hominins. Specimens were represented by 50 three-dimensional landmarks superimposed by generalized Procrustes analysis. The simulation process applied developmental trajectories from extant hominine species to the Taung fossil in order to generate its adult form. Despite differences found in the developmental patterns of these modern species, simulations tested on extant juveniles-transforming them into "adults" using trajectories from other species-revealed that these differences have negligible impact on adult morphology. This indicates that morphology already present by occlusion of the first permanent molar is the primary determinant of adult form, thereby supporting use of extant trajectories to estimate the morphology of an extinct species. The simulated Taung adult was then compared to other adult fossils. As these comparisons required assumptions about the pattern and magnitude of developmental change, additional analyses were performed to evaluate these two parameters separately. Results of all analyses overwhelmingly rejected the possibility that the Taung child was a juvenile robust australopith, but were consistent with the hypothesis that the Taung and Sterkfontein fossils are conspecific. Between Sts 5 and Sts 71, the latter is more likely to resemble the adult form of the Taung child.     

Effects of the stimulus and chamber size on unlearned fear across development

Predator odors have been found to induce unconditioned fear in adult animals and provide the opportunity to study the mechanisms underlying unlearned and learned fear. Predator threats change across an animal's lifetime, as do abilities that enable the animal to learn or engage in different defensive behaviors. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the combination of factors that successfully induce unlearned fear to predator odor across development. Infant, juvenile, adolescent, and adult rats were exposed to one of the three odor stimuli (control odor, cat urine, or cat fur) in either a small or large chamber. Though all ages displayed fear-related behavior to cat odors, differences were reflected only in freezing behavior and not, as expected, risk-assessment. Infant and juvenile animals also increased freezing to cat urine compared to the control odor, possibly because these age groups possess limited defensive options to cope with threat and so may respond with freezing to all predator stimuli. Unexpectedly, chamber size had no effect on either freezing or risk-assessment in this study. Once the parameters of unconditioned fear are understood, they can be exploited to develop a learning paradigm to predator odors that could be used in early life.     

The lure of antagonistic social strategy in unstable socioecological environment: Residential mobility facilitates individuals' antisocial behavior

Individuals are believed to calibrate their antisocial level in response to the socioecological environment where they live. However, knowledge of the relationship between specific socioecological factors and antisocial behavior remains scant. This research focused on humans' residential mobility and explored its influence on antisocial behavior. Three studies were designed to test the hypothesis that individuals with high (vs. low) residential mobility tend to engage in antisocial behavior more frequently. The results showed that both self-reported residential mobility (Study 1) and manipulated residential mobility (Studies 2 and 3) positively predicted individuals' antisocial level. Furthermore, we found that social monitoring played a role in moderating the linkage between residential mobility and antisocial behavior (Study 3); individuals with high residential mobility decreased their antisocial behavior when they were observed by artificial eyes, while individuals with low residential mobility did the opposite. Taken together, this research suggests that, generally speaking, residential mobility is one socioecological factor that increases antisocial behavior, and that social monitoring can have diverse effects on such behavior.     

Some preliminary evidence of the social facilitation of mounting behavior in a juvenile bull asian elephant (Elephas maximus)

This study recorded sexual behavior within a captive herd of 8 Asian elephants for approximately 230 hr on 50 days over a period of 10 months. The study observed a single adult and a single juvenile bull mounting cows more than 160 times. When the juvenile bull was between 4 years, 2 months and 4 years, 8 months old, he exhibited mounting behavior only on days when adult mounting occurred. Adult mounting always occurred first. Beyond the age of 4 years, 8 months, the juvenile bull exhibited spontaneous mounting behavior in the absence of adult mounting. This suggests that mounting behavior may develop because of social facilitation. Determining the significance of the presence of sexually active adults in the normal development of sexual behavior in juveniles will require further studies. Encouraging the establishment of larger captive herds containing adults and calves of both sexes-if their presence is important-would improve the welfare of elephants in zoos and increase their potential conservation value.     

Sexually distinct development of vocal pathways in Xenopus laevis

Deterministic rules, rather than experience, are thought to regulate the development of simple behaviors in vertebrates and invertebrates. We revisited this issue through examination of the sexually distinct vocalizations of African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis), a reproductive behavior used by sexually mature males and females. We discovered that, as expected for simple behavior, female vocalizations develop through deterministic rules. The rare calls of juvenile females are indistinguishable from those of adult females. The vocal pathways of juvenile females, as measured by the contractile properties of the laryngeal muscles (the vocal muscles) and the laryngeal motoneuron somata (vocal motoneurons) size, are the developmental default and do not differentiate as they mature. Male Xenopus, in contrast, produce extensive vocalizations with rudimentary acoustic structure before reaching sexual maturity. Moreover, the functional properties of the vocal central pattern generator mature before muscle fibers and motoneuron size are fully masculinized. The results suggest that neuronal activity during development may be important in organizing the contractile properties of the muscle fibers in male, but not in female Xenopus. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 70: 862–874, 2010     

Unraveling the Genetic Etiology of Adult Antisocial Behavior: A Genome-Wide Association Study

Crime poses a major burden for society. The heterogeneous nature of criminal behavior makes it difficult to unravel its causes. Relatively little research has been conducted on the genetic influences of criminal behavior. The few twin and adoption studies that have been undertaken suggest that about half of the variance in antisocial behavior can be explained by genetic factors. In order to identify the specific common genetic variants underlying this behavior, we conduct the first genome-wide association study (GWAS) on adult antisocial behavior. Our sample comprised a community sample of 4816 individuals who had completed a self-report questionnaire. No genetic polymorphisms reached genome-wide significance for association with adult antisocial behavior. In addition, none of the traditional candidate genes can be confirmed in our study. While not genome-wide significant, the gene with the strongest association (p-value = 8.7×10⁻⁵) was DYRK1A, a gene previously related to abnormal brain development and mental retardation. Future studies should use larger, more homogeneous samples to disentangle the etiology of antisocial behavior. Biosocial criminological research allows a more empirically grounded understanding of criminal behavior, which could ultimately inform and improve current treatment strategies.     

A gene‐based evolutionary explanation for the association between criminal involvement and number of sex partners

Abstract

Empirical research has revealed a positive relationship between number of sex partners and involvement in antisocial behaviors. Most attempts to explain this association have taken an evolutionary perspective and argued that the same traits (e.g., impulsiveness, shortsightedness, and aggressiveness) that are related to a large number of sex partners are also related to criminal involvement However, there is also reason to believe that the covariation between sex partners and crime behaviors can be partially explained by a common genetic pathway, where genes that are related to sex partners are also related to antisocial conduct. We test this possibility by using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Specifically, we examine whether variants of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) are associated with number of sexual partners and with adult criminal behavior. The results of our analyses reveal two broad findings. First, and in line with prior research, we find that there is a strong positive association between sex partners and antisocial behavior. Second, DAT1 explains variation in both number of sexual partners and in criminal conduct for males. We speak to the implications of our findings.     

What keeps insects small?—Size dependent predation on two species of butterfly larvae

Insect size usually increases greatly in the latter stages of development, while reproductive value increases strongly with adult size. Mechanisms that can balance the benefits associated with increased growth are poorly understood, raising the question: what keeps insects from becoming larger? If predation risk was to increase with juvenile size, it would make an extension of development very risky, favouring smaller final sizes. But field measures of juvenile mortality seldom show any general patterns of size dependence. We here therefore try to estimate a mechanistic relationship between juvenile size and predation risk by exposing the larvae of two closely related butterflies to a generalist invertebrate predator in a laboratory experiment. Predation risk increased with larval size but was not affected by the species-specific growth rate differences. These results indicate that predation risk may increase with the size of the juvenile even when predators are relatively small. By basing a model simulation on our data we also show that size dependent predation of the kind found in this study has potential to stabilise selection on body size in these species. Thus, these findings suggest that more detailed studies of the size dependence of predation risk on juvenile instars will increase the understanding of what it is that keeps insects small.     

Socially biased learning among adult cottontop tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

We presented adult cottontop tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) with a novel foraging task that had been used previously to examine socially biased learning of juvenile observers [Humle & Snowdon, Animal Behaviour 75:267–277, 2008]. The task could be solved in one of two ways, and thus allowed for an analysis of behavioral matching between an observer and a skilled demonstrator (trained to use one of the two methods exclusively). Because the demonstrator was an adult in both this study and the juvenile study, the influence of the observer's age could be isolated and examined, as well as the behavior of demonstrators toward observers of different ages. Our main goals were to (1) compare adults and juveniles acquiring the same task to identify how the age of the observer affects socially biased learning and (2) examine the relationship between socially biased learning and behavioral matching in adults. Although adults spent less time observing the trained demonstrators than did juveniles, the adults were more proficient at solving the task. Furthermore, even though observers did not overtly match the behavior of the demonstrator, observation remained an important factor in the success of these individuals. The findings suggested that adult observers could extract information needed to solve a novel foraging task without explicitly matching the behavior of the demonstrator. Adult observers begged much less than juveniles and demonstrators did not respond to begging from adult. Skill acquisition and the process of socially biased learning are, therefore, age‐dependent and are influenced by the behavioral interactions between observer and demonstrator. To what extent this holds true for other primates or animal species still needs to be more fully investigated and considered when designing experiments and interpreting results. Am. J. Primatol. 72:287–295, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Do hormonal changes that appear at the onset of puberty determine the strategies used by female rats when solving a navigation task?

The present set of experiments evaluated the possibility that the hormonal changes that appear at the onset of puberty might influence the strategies used by female rats to solve a spatial navigation task. In each experiment, rats were trained in a triangular shaped pool to find a hidden platform which maintained a constant relationship with two sources of information, one individual landmark and one corner of the pool with a distinctive geometry. Then, three test trials were conducted without the platform in counterbalanced order. In one, both the geometry and the landmark were simultaneously presented, although in different spatial positions, in order to measure the rats' preferences. In the remaining test trials what the rats had learned about the two sources of information was measured by presenting them individually. Experiment 1, with 60-day old rats, revealed a clear sex difference, thus replicating a previous finding (Rodríguez et al., 2010): females spent more time in an area of the pool that corresponded to the landmark, whereas males spent more time in the distinctive corner of the pool even though the remaining tests revealed that both sexes had learned about the two sources of information. In Experiment 2, 30-day old female rats, unlike adults, preferred to solve the task using the geometry information rather than the landmark (although juvenile males behaved in exactly the same way as adults). Experiment 3 directly compared the performance of 90- and 30-day old females and found that while the adult females preferred to solve the task using the landmark, the reverse was true in juvenile females. Experiment 4 compared ovariectomized and sham operated females and found that while sham operated females preferred to solve the task using the landmark, the reverse was true in ovariectomized females. Finally, Experiment 5 directly compared adult males and females, juvenile males and females, and ovariectomized females and found that adult males, juvenile males and females, and ovariectomized females did not differ among them in their preferred cue, but they all differed from adult females.     

Bifurcation of gill filaments in winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus Walbaum) from Long Island Sound

Morphological and histological examinations of gills excised from adult winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus Walbaum, collected at clean and contaminated areas of Long Island Sound were undertaken to assess possible biological consequences of contamination. On the basis of previous studies, three collection sites were chosen: Shoreham, New York, a relatively clean, unindustrialized area, and New Haven Harbor, Connecticut and Hempstead Harbor, New York, both industrialized and heavily populated.
Gill samples were taken monthly at all three sites for light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examination. Results from both techniques suggest a relationship between contamination of the sediments and the prevalence of bifurcated gill filaments, the condition being most severe at New Haven Harbor. The bifurcations were not consistently associated with any parasitological or pathological conditions when examined by light microscopy.
Gill samples were subsequently taken from juvenile winter flounder caught in New Haven Harbor to determine how early in the life cycle gill bifurcations develop. The data show that the majority of these anomalies begin in juvenile flounder rather than in embryos, larvae, or adults. Gill bifurcations were found in 27% of the 2-year-old flounder, compared to 12% of the 1-year-old fish and 15% of the adults from the same area.     

Sex Ratio and Sexual Size Dimorphism in a Toad-headed Lizard,Phrynocephalus guinanensis

Phrynocephalus guinanensis has sexual dimorphism in abdominal coloration, but its ontogenetic development of sexual size dimorphism(SSD) is unknown. Using mark-recapture data during four days each year from August from 2014 to 2016, we investigated the development of sex ratios, SSD, sex-specific survivorship and growth rates in a population of P. guinanensis. Our results indicated that the sex ratio of males to females was 1:2.8. Males had a lower survival rate(6%) than females(14%) across the age range from hatchling to adult, which supported the discovered female-biased sex ratio potentially associated with the low survival rate of males between hatchlings and juveniles. Male-biased SSD in tail length and head width existed in adults rather than in hatchling or juvenile lizards. The growth rates in body dimensions were undistinguishable between the sexes during the age from hatchling to juvenile, but the growth rate in head length from juvenile to adult was significantly larger in males than females. Average growth rate of all morphological measurements from hatchling to juvenile were larger compared with corresponding measurements from juvenile to adult, but only being significant in tail length, head width, abdomen length in females and snout-vent length in males. We provided a case study to strengthen our understanding of the important life history traits on how a viviparous lizard population can survive and develop their morphology in cold climates.     

Relationship between prey consumption and colony size in an orb spider

Summary I studied the relationship between prey consumption and colony size in the orb spiderPhiloponella semiplumosa. Observations of unmanipulated colonies showed that prey biomass per juvenile spider was positively correlated with colony size, indicating that prey consumption was highest in the largest colonies observed. In contrast, the relationship between prey biomass per adult female and colony size was curvilinear; prey consumption tended to be highest in intermediatesized colonies. Adult female cephalothorax width was positively correlated with colony size. Number of egg sacs per adult female tended to be highest in intermediate-sized colonies. Prey biomass per juvenile was lower in experimentally reduced colonies than in large control colonies. Aerial-arthropod abundance was not correlated with colony size, and experimental prey supplementation did not affect colony size. Thus, the relationship between prey consumption and colony size was influenced by coloniality directly, rather than by a correlation between prey abundance at a site and colony size.     

Improving Negative Emotion Recognition in Young Offenders Reduces Subsequent Crime

Background

Children with antisocial behaviour show deficits in the perception of emotional expressions in others that may contribute to the development and persistence of antisocial and aggressive behaviour. Current treatments for antisocial youngsters are limited in effectiveness. It has been argued that more attention should be devoted to interventions that target neuropsychological correlates of antisocial behaviour. This study examined the effect of emotion recognition training on criminal behaviour.

Methods

Emotion recognition and crime levels were studied in 50 juvenile offenders. Whilst all young offenders received their statutory interventions as the study was conducted, a subgroup of twenty-four offenders also took part in a facial affect training aimed at improving emotion recognition. Offenders in the training and control groups were matched for age, SES, IQ and lifetime crime level. All offenders were tested twice for emotion recognition performance, and recent crime data were collected after the testing had been completed.

Results

Before the training there were no differences between the groups in emotion recognition, with both groups displaying poor fear, sadness and anger recognition. After the training fear, sadness and anger recognition improved significantly in juvenile offenders in the training group. Although crime rates dropped in all offenders in the 6 months following emotion testing, only the group of offenders who had received the emotion training showed a significant reduction in the severity of the crimes they committed.

Conclusions

The study indicates that emotion recognition can be relatively easily improved in youths who engage in serious antisocial and criminal behavior. The results suggest that improved emotion recognition has the potential to reduce the severity of reoffending.     

Re-Examining of Moffitt’s Theory of Delinquency through Agent Based Modeling

Moffitt’s theory of delinquency suggests that at-risk youths can be divided into two groups, the adolescence- limited group and the life-course-persistent group, predetermined at a young age, and social interactions between these two groups become important during the adolescent years. We built an agent-based model based on the microscopic interactions Moffitt described: (i) a maturity gap that dictates (ii) the cost and reward of antisocial behavior, and (iii) agents imitating the antisocial behaviors of others more successful than themselves, to find indeed the two groups emerging in our simulations. Moreover, through an intervention simulation where we moved selected agents from one social network to another, we also found that the social network plays an important role in shaping the life course outcome.     

‘One Can Always Say No.’ Enriching the Bioethical Debate on Antisocial Behaviour,Neurobiology and Prevention: Views of Juvenile Delinquents

Genomic and neuro‐scientific research into the causes and course of antisocial behaviour triggers bioethical debate. Often, these new developments are met with reservation, and possible drawbacks and negative side‐effects are pointed out. This article reflects on these scientific developments and the bioethical debate by means of an exploration of the perspectives of one important stakeholder group: juveniles convicted of a serious crime who stay in a juvenile justice institution. The views of juveniles are particularly interesting, as possible applications of current and future scientific findings are considered to be most effective if applied early in life. Based on their statements we come to the following provisional conclusions. Concerns about labelling and stigmatization are recognized and widely shared. Possible effects on one's identity are acknowledged too. Yet, a possible biological underpinning of one's antisocial behaviour is not considered to result in the development of a criminal identity. Nonetheless, psychopharmacological interventions are experienced as endangering one's current self. Concerns regarding the refusal of responsibility and the blaming of one's genes or brain can be put into perspective. Instead, participants emphasize the motive of own choice as underlying their criminal behaviour. Moreover, bioethical debate should pay attention to the role of parents of children at risk and the parent‐child relationship in families at‐risk. We argue that the short‐term and long‐term interests of children at risk, as well as their interests and those of society at large, may conflict. In order to deal appropriately with newly arising dilemmas, a normative framework needs to be developed.