Correction of defective protein trafficking of a mutant HERG potassium channel in human long QT syndrome. Pharmacological and temperature effects.

The chromosome 7-linked form of congenital long QT syndrome (LQT2) is caused by mutations in the human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) that encodes the rapidly activating delayed rectifier potassium channel. One mechanism for the loss of normal channel function in LQT2 is defective protein trafficking, which results in the failure of the channel protein to reach the plasma membrane. Here we show that the N470D LQT2 mutant protein is trafficking-deficient when expressed at 37 degrees C in HEK293 cells, whereas at 27 degrees C its trafficking to the plasma membrane and channel function are markedly improved. We further show that the antiarrhythmic drug E-4031, which selectively blocks HERG channels, also corrects defective protein trafficking of the N470D mutant and can restore the generation of HERG current. Similar findings were obtained with the drugs astemizole and cisapride, as well as with high concentrations of glycerol. The effect of E-4031 on HERG protein trafficking was concentration-dependent and required low drug concentrations (saturation present at 5 microM), developed rapidly with drug exposure, and occurred post-translationally. These findings suggest that protein misfolding leading to defective trafficking of some HERG LQT mutations may be corrected by specific pharmacological strategies.     

The binding site for channel blockers that rescue misprocessed human long QT syndrome type 2 ether-a-gogo-related gene (HERG) mutations.

Mutations in the human ether-a-gogo-related gene (HERG) K(+) channel gene cause chromosome 7-linked long QT syndrome type 2 (LQT2), which is characterized by a prolonged QT interval in the electrocardiogram and an increased susceptibility to life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias. LQT2 mutations produce loss-of-function phenotypes and reduce I(Kr) currents either by the heteromeric assembly of non- or malfunctioning channel subunits with wild type subunits at the cell surface or by retention of misprocessed mutant HERG channels in the endoplasmic reticulum. Misprocessed mutations often encode for channel proteins that are functional upon incorporation into the plasma membrane. As a result the pharmacological correction of folding defects and restoration of protein function are of considerable interest. Here we report that the trafficking-deficient pore mutation HERG G601S was rescued by a series of HERG channel blockers that increased cell surface expression. Rescue by these pharmacological chaperones varied directly with their blocking potency. We used structure-activity relationships and site-directed mutagenesis to define the binding site of the pharmacological chaperones. We found that binding occurred in the inner cavity and correlated with hydrophobicity and cationic charge. Rescue was domain-restricted because the trafficking of two misprocessed mutations in the C terminus, HERG F805C and HERG R823W, was not restored by channel blockers. Our findings represent a first step toward the design of pharmacological chaperones that will rescue HERG K(+) channels without block.     

Changes in channel trafficking and protein stability caused by LQT2 mutations in the PAS domain of the HERG channel

Inherited human long-QT2 syndrome (LQTS) results from mutations in the gene encoding the HERG channel. Several LQT2-associated mutations have been mapped to the amino terminal cytoplasmic Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domain of the HERG1a channel subunit. Here we have characterized the trafficking properties of some LQT2-associated PAS domain mutants and analyzed rescue of the trafficking mutants by low temperature (27°C) or by the pore blocker drug E4031. We show that the LQT2-associated mutations in the PAS domain of the HERG channel display molecular properties that are distinct from the properties of LQT2-associated mutations in the trans-membrane region. Unlike the latter, many of the tested PAS domain LQT2-associated mutations do not result in trafficking deficiency of the channel. Moreover, the majority of the PAS domain mutations that cause trafficking deficiencies are not rescued by a pore blocking drug. We have also explored the in vitro folding stability properties of isolated mutant PAS domain proteins using a thermal unfolding fluorescence assay and a chemical unfolding assay.     

Pharmacological rescue of trafficking defective HERG channels formed by coassembly of wild-type and long QT mutant N470D subunits

Mutations in the human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) cause long QT syndrome. We previously showed that the HERG N470D mutation expressed as homotetrameric channels causes a protein trafficking defect, and this can be corrected by the HERG channel blocking drug E-4031. The N470D mutant also has been reported to cause dominant negative suppression of HERG current when coexpressed with wild-type channel subunits. The aims of this study were 1). to investigate the molecular mechanism responsible for the dominant negative effect of the N470D mutant coexpressed with wild-type subunits and 2). to test whether the trafficking defective heteromeric channels could be pharmacologically rescued by E-4031. Using a combination of immunoprecipitation and Western blot methods, we showed that N470D mutant and wild-type HERG subunits were physically associated in the endoplasmic reticulum as heteromeric channels. The coassembly resulted in the retention of both wild-type and N470D subunits in the endoplasmic reticulum. Culturing cells in E-4031 increased the cell surface expression of these channels, although with an altered electrophysiological phenotype. These results suggest that the dominant negative effect of the N470D wild-type coassembled channels is caused by retention of heteromeric channels in the endoplasmic reticulum and that the trafficking defect of these channels can be corrected by specific pharmacological strategies.     

Pharmacologic Approach to Defective Protein Trafficking in the E637K-hERG Mutant with PD-118057 and Thapsigargin

Background

Treatment of LQT2 is inadequate. Many drugs which can pharmacologically rescue defective protein trafficking in LQT2 also result in potent blockade of HERG current, negating their therapeutic benefit. It is reported that PD-118057 and thapsigargin can rescue LQT2 without hERG channel blockade, but the precise mechanism of action is unknown. Furthermore, the effect of PD-118057 and thapsigargin on the dominant negative E637K-hERG mutant has not been previously investigated.

Objective

In this study, we investigated: (a) the effect of PD-118057 and thapsigargin on the current amplitudes of WT-hERG and WT/E637K-hERG channels; (b) the effect of PD-118057 and thapsigargin on the biophysical properties of WT-hERG and WT/E637K-hERG channels; (c) whether drug treatment can rescue channel processing and trafficking defects of the WT/E637K-hERG mutant.

Methods

The whole-cell Patch-clamp technique was used to assess the effect of PD-118057 and thapsigargin on the electrophysiological characteristics of the rapidly activating delayed rectifier K⁺ current (I_kr) of the hERG protein channel. Western blot was done to investigate pharmacological rescue on hERG protein channel function.

Results

In our study, PD-118057 was shown to significantly enhance both the maximum current amplitude and tail current amplitude, but did not alter the gating and kinetic properties of the WT-hERG channel, with the exception of accelerating steady-state inactivation. Additionally, thapsigargin shows a similar result as PD-118057 for the WT-hERG channel, but with the exception of attenuating steady-state inactivation. However, for the WT/E637K-hERG channel, PD-118057 had no effect on either the current or on the gating and kinetic properties. Furthermore, thapsigargin treatment did not alter the current or the gating and kinetic properties of the WT/E637K-hERG channel, with the exception of opening at more positive voltages.

Conclusion

Our findings illustrate that neither PD-118057 nor thapsigargin play a role in correcting the dominant-negative effect of the E637K-hERG mutant.     

Co-chaperone FKBP38 promotes HERG trafficking

The Long QT Syndrome is a cardiac disorder associated with ventricular arrhythmias that can lead to syncope and sudden death. One prominent form of the Long QT syndrome has been linked to mutations in the HERG gene (KCNH2) that encodes the voltage-dependent delayed rectifier potassium channel (I(Kr)). In order to search for HERG-interacting proteins important for HERG maturation and trafficking, we conducted a proteomics screen using myc-tagged HERG transfected into cardiac (HL-1) and non-cardiac (human embryonic kidney 293) cell lines. A partial list of putative HERG-interacting proteins includes several known components of the cytosolic chaperone system, including Hsc70 (70-kDa heat shock cognate protein), Hsp90 (90-kDa heat shock protein), Hdj-2, Hop (Hsp-organizing protein), and Bag-2 (BCL-associated athanogene 2). In addition, two membrane-integrated proteins were identified, calnexin and FKBP38 (38-kDa FK506-binding protein, FKBP8). We show that FKBP38 immunoprecipitates and co-localizes with HERG in our cellular system. Importantly, small interfering RNA knock down of FKBP38 causes a reduction of HERG trafficking, and overexpression of FKBP38 is able to partially rescue the LQT2 trafficking mutant F805C. We propose that FKBP38 is a co-chaperone of HERG and contributes via the Hsc70/Hsp90 chaperone system to the trafficking of wild type and mutant HERG potassium channels.     

Trafficking-deficient hERG K⁺ channels linked to long QT syndrome are regulated by a microtubule-dependent quality control compartment in the ER

The human ether-a-go-go related gene (hERG) encodes the voltage-gated K(+) channel that underlies the rapidly activating delayed-rectifier current in cardiac myocytes. hERG is synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as an "immature" N-linked glycoprotein and is terminally glycosylated in the Golgi apparatus. Most hERG missense mutations linked to long QT syndrome type 2 (LQT2) reduce the terminal glycosylation and functional expression. We tested the hypothesis that a distinct pre-Golgi compartment negatively regulates the trafficking of some LQT2 mutations to the Golgi apparatus. We found that treating cells in nocodazole, a microtubule depolymerizing agent, altered the subcellular localization, functional expression, and glycosylation of the LQT2 mutation G601S-hERG differently from wild-type hERG (WT-hERG). G601S-hERG quickly redistributed to peripheral compartments that partially colocalized with KDEL (Lys-Asp-Glu-Leu) chaperones but not calnexin, Sec31, or the ER golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC). Treating cells in E-4031, a drug that increases the functional expression of G601S-hERG, prevented the accumulation of G601S-hERG to the peripheral compartments and increased G601S-hERG colocalization with the ERGIC. Coexpressing the temperature-sensitive mutant G protein from vesicular stomatitis virus, a mutant N-linked glycoprotein that is retained in the ER, showed it was not restricted to the same peripheral compartments as G601S-hERG at nonpermissive temperatures. We conclude that the trafficking of G601S-hERG is negatively regulated by a microtubule-dependent compartment within the ER. Identifying mechanisms that prevent the sorting or promote the release of LQT2 channels from this compartment may represent a novel therapeutic strategy for LQT2.     

The dominant negative LQT2 mutation A561V reduces wild-type HERG expression

HERG(1) K(+) channel mutations are responsible for one form of dominantly inherited long QT syndrome (LQT). Some LQT mutations exert a dominant negative effect on wild-type current expression. To investigate mechanisms of dominant-negative behavior, we co-expressed wild-type HERG with the A561V mutant in mammalian cells. Transfection with various cDNA ratios produced HERG K(+) current densities that approached a predicted binomial distribution where mutant and wild-type subunits co-assemble in a tetramer with nearly complete dominance. Using C terminus myc-tagged wild-type HERG we specifically followed the mutant's effect on full-length wild-type HERG protein expression. Co-expression with A561V reduced the abundance of full-length wild-type HERG protein comparable to the current reduction. Reduction of wild-type protein was due to decreased synthesis and increased turnover. Conditions facilitating protein folding (growth at 30 degrees C, or in 10% glycerol) resulted in partial rescue from the dominant effect, as did the 26 S proteosome inhibitor ALLN. Thus, for A561V, dominant negative effects result from assembly of wild-type subunits with mutant very early in production leading to rapid recognition of mutant channels and targeting for proteolysis. These results establish protein misfolding, cellular proofreading, and bystander involvement as contributing mechanisms for dominant effects in LQT2.     

Mechanisms of pharmacological rescue of trafficking-defective hERG mutant channels in human long QT syndrome

Long QT syndrome type 2 is caused by mutations in the human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG). We previously reported that the N470D mutation is retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but can be rescued to the plasma membrane by hERG channel blocker E-4031. The mechanisms of ER retention and how E-4031 rescues the N470D mutant are poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the interaction of hERG channels with the ER chaperone protein calnexin. Using coimmunoprecipitation, we showed that the immature forms of both wild type hERG and N470D associated with calnexin. The association required N-linked glycosylation of hERG channels. Pulse-chase analysis revealed that N470D had a prolonged association with calnexin compared with wild type hERG and E-4031 shortened the time course of calnexin association with N470D. To test whether the prolonged association of N470D with calnexin is due to defective folding of mutant channels, we studied hERG channel folding using the trypsin digestion method. We found that N470D and the immature form of wild type hERG were more sensitive to trypsin digestion than the mature form of wild type hERG. In the presence of E-4031, N470D became more resistant to trypsin even when its ER-to-Golgi transport was blocked by brefeldin A. These results suggest that defective folding of N470D contributes to its prolonged association with calnexin and ER retention and that E-4031 may restore proper folding of the N470D channel leading to its cell surface expression.     

Defective human Ether-à-go-go-related gene trafficking linked to an endoplasmic reticulum retention signal in the C terminus

Mutations in the human Ether-à-go-go-Related gene (HERG), encoding the protein underlying the cardiac K(+) current, I(Kr), cause chromosome 7-linked long QT syndrome (LQT2). In this study, we show that deletion of the C-terminal 147 amino acids (HERG(Delta147)) abolished I(Kr), whereas a larger, 159-amino acid deletion (HERG(Delta159)) identified in an LQT2 kindred did generate I(Kr), albeit with reduced amplitude compared with the wild type. The 12 amino acids present in HERG(Delta147) and absent in HERG(Delta159) include a potential endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal, RGR, which when mutated to LGL (HERG(Delta147-LGL)) restored I(Kr). Streptavidin selection of biotin-labeled surface proteins showed good expression of wild-type and HERG(Delta159) at the cell surface and low expression of HERG(Delta147-LGL) and HERG(Delta147). Additionally, a 100-amino acid peptide spanning the RGR triplet can rescue the defect in HERG(Delta147) when co-expressed as an ER-targeted minigene. Failure of HERG trafficking is known to cause LQT2, and this identified a molecular mechanism underlying this defect. Further, our data indicate that a key function of the C-terminal 104 amino acids is to mask the RGR ER retention signal, which becomes exposed when mutations truncate the HERG C terminus.     

Interaction with GM130 during HERG ion channel trafficking. Disruption by type 2 congenital long QT syndrome mutations. Human Ether-à-go-go-Related Gene

Many mutations in the Human Ether-à-go-go-Related Gene (HERG) cause type 2 congenital long QT syndrome (LQT2) by disrupting trafficking of the HERG-encoded potassium channel. Beyond observations that some mutations trap channels in the endoplasmic reticulum, little is known about how trafficking fails. Even less is known about what checkpoints are encountered in normal trafficking. To identify protein partners encountered as HERG channels are transported among subcellular compartments, we screened a human heart library with the C terminus of HERG using yeast two-hybrid technology. Among the proteins isolated was GM130, a Golgi-associated protein involved in vesicular transport. The interaction mapped to two non-contiguous regions of HERG and to a region just upstream of the GRASP-65 interaction domain of GM130. GM130 did not interact with the N or C terminus of either KvLQT1 or Shaker channels. LQT2-causing mutations in the HERG C terminus selectively disrupted interactions with GM130 but not Tara, another HERG-interacting protein. Native GM130 and stably expressed HERG were co-immunoprecipitated from HEK-293 cells using GM130 antibodies. In rat cardiac myocytes and HEK-293 cells, confocal immunocytochemistry showed co-localization of GM130 and HERG to the Golgi apparatus. Overexpression of GM130 suppressed HERG current amplitude in Xenopus oocytes, as if by providing an excess of substrate at the Golgi checkpoint. These findings indicate that GM130 plays a previously undefined role in cargo transport. We propose that the cytoplasmic C terminus of HERG participates in the tethering or possibly targeting of HERG-containing vesicles within the Golgi via its interaction with GM130.     

A novel mutation (T65P) in the PAS domain of the human potassium channel HERG results in the long QT syndrome by trafficking deficiency

The congenital long QT syndrome is a cardiac disease characterized by an increased susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmias. The clinical hallmark is a prolongation of the QT interval, which reflects a delay in repolarization caused by mutations in cardiac ion channel genes. Mutations in the HERG (human ether-à-go-go-related gene KCNH2 can cause a reduction in I(Kr), one of the currents responsible for cardiac repolarization. We describe the identification and characterization of a novel missense mutation T65P in the PAS (Per-Arnt-Sim) domain of HERG, resulting in defective trafficking of the protein to the cell membrane. Defective folding of the mutant protein could be restored by decreased cell incubation temperature and pharmacologically by cisapride and E-4031. When trafficking was restored by growing cells at 27 degrees C, the kinetics of the mutated channel resembled that of wild-type channels although the rate of activation, deactivation, and recovery from inactivation were accelerated. No positive evidence for the formation of heterotetramers was obtained by co-expression of wild-type with mutant subunits at 37 degrees C. As a consequence the clinical symptoms may be explained rather by haploinsufficiency than by dominant negative effects. This study is the first to relate a PAS domain mutation in HERG to a trafficking deficiency at body temperature, apart from effects on channel deactivation.     

S641 contributes HERG K+ channel inactivation

The kinetics of voltage-dependent inactivation of the rapidly activating delayed rectifier, IKr, are unique among K+ channels. The human ether-a-gogo-related gene (HERG) encodes the pore-forming subunit of IKr and shares a high degree of homology with ether-a-gogo (EAG) channels that do not inactivate. Within those segments thought to contribute to the channel pore, HERG possesses several serine residues that are not present in EAG channels. Two of these serines, S620 and S631, are known to be required for inactivation. We now show that a third serine, S641, which resides in the outer portion of the sixth transmembrane segment, is also critical for normal inactivation. As with the other serines, S641 is also involved in maintaining ion selectivity of the HERG channel and alters sensitivity to block by E4031. Larger charged or polar substitutions (S641D and S641T) disrupted C-type inactivation in HERG. Smaller aliphatic and more conservative substitutions (S641A and S641C) facilitated C-type inactivation. Our data show that, like S620 and S631, S641 is another key residue for the rapid inactivation. The altered inactivation of mutations at S620, S631, and S641 were dominant, suggesting that a network of hydroxyl side chains is required for the unique inactivation, permeation, and rectification of HERG channels.     

Protein kinase A activity at the endoplasmic reticulum surface is responsible for augmentation of human ether-a-go-go-related gene product (HERG)

Human ether-a-go-go-related gene product (HERG) is a cardiac potassium channel commonly implicated in the pathogenesis of the long QT syndrome, type 2 (LQT2). LQT2 mutations typically have incomplete penetrance and affect individuals at various stages of their lives; this may mirror variations in intracellular signaling and HERG regulation. Previous work showed that sustained protein kinase A (PKA) activity augments HERG protein abundance by a mechanism that includes enhanced protein translation. To investigate the subcellular site of this regulation, we generated site-specific probes to the cytoplasmic surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the presumed locale of channel synthesis. Real-time FRET-based indicators demonstrated both cAMP and PKA activity at the ER. A PKA inhibitor targeted to the ER surface (termed p4PKIg) completely abolished PKA-mediated augmentation of HERG in HEK293 cells as well as rat neonatal cardiomyocytes. Immunofluorescence co-localization, targeted FRET-based PKA biosensors, phospho-specific antibodies, and in vivo phosphorylation experiments confirmed that p4PKIg is preferentially active at the ER surface rather than the plasma membrane. Rerouting this inhibitor to the outer mitochondrial membrane diminishes its ability to block cAMP-dependent HERG induction. Our results support a model where PKA-dependent regulation of HERG synthesis occurs at the ER surface. Furthermore, reagents generated for this study provide novel experimental tools to probe compartmentalized cAMP/PKA signaling within cells.     

S641 contributes HERG K+ channel inactivation

The kinetics of voltage-dependent inactivation of the rapidly activating delayed rectifier, I _Kr, are unique among K⁺ channels. The human ether-a-gogo-related gene (HERG) encodes the pore-forming subunit of I _Kr and shares a high degree of homology with ether-a-gogo (EAG) channels that do not inactivate. Within those segments thought to contribute to the channel pore, HERG, possesses several serine residues that are not present in EAG channels. Two of these serines, S620 and S631, are known to be required for inactivation. We now show that a third serine, S641, which resides in the outer portion of the sixth transmembrane segment, is also critical for normal inactivation. As with the other serines, S641 is also involved in maintaining ion selectivity of the HERG channel and alters sensitivity to block by E4031. Larger charged or polar substitutions (S641D and S641T) disrupted C-type inactivation in HERG. Smaller aliphatic and more conservative substitutions (S641A and S641C) facilitated C-type inactivation. Our data show that, like S620 and S631, S641 is another key residue for the rapid inactivation. The altered inactivation of mutations at S620, S631, and S641 were dominant, suggesting that a network of hydroxyl side chains is required for the unique inactivation, permeation, and rectification of HERG channels.     

Progesterone impairs human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) trafficking by disruption of intracellular cholesterol homeostasis

The prolongation of QT intervals in both mothers and fetuses during the later period of pregnancy implies that higher levels of progesterone may regulate the function of the human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) potassium channel, a key ion channel responsible for controlling the length of QT intervals. Here, we studied the effect of progesterone on the expression, trafficking, and function of HERG channels and the underlying mechanism. Treatment with progesterone for 24 h decreased the abundance of the fully glycosylated form of the HERG channel in rat neonatal cardiac myocytes and HERG-HEK293 cells, a cell line stably expressing HERG channels. Progesterone also concentration-dependently decreased HERG current density, but had no effect on voltage-gated L-type Ca(2+) and K(+) channels. Immunofluorescence microscopy and Western blot analysis show that progesterone preferentially decreased HERG channel protein abundance in the plasma membrane, induced protein accumulation in the dilated endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and increased the protein expression of C/EBP homologous protein, a hallmark of ER stress. Application of 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (a sterol-binding agent) or overexpression of Rab9 rescued the progesterone-induced HERG trafficking defect and ER stress. Disruption of intracellular cholesterol homeostasis with simvastatin, imipramine, or exogenous application of cholesterol mimicked the effect of progesterone on HERG channel trafficking. Progesterone may impair HERG channel folding in the ER and/or block its trafficking to the Golgi complex by disrupting intracellular cholesterol homeostasis. Our findings may reveal a novel molecular mechanism to explain the QT prolongation and high risk of developing arrhythmias during late pregnancy.     

Rescue of aberrant gating by a genetically encoded PAS (Per-Arnt-Sim) domain in several long QT syndrome mutant human ether-á-go-go-related gene potassium channels

Congenital long QT syndrome 2 (LQT2) is caused by loss-of-function mutations in the human ether-á-go-go-related gene (hERG) voltage-gated potassium (K(+)) channel. hERG channels have slow deactivation kinetics that are regulated by an N-terminal Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domain. Only a small percentage of hERG channels containing PAS domain LQT2 mutations (hERG PAS-LQT2) have been characterized in mammalian cells, so the functional effect of these mutations is unclear. We investigated 11 hERG PAS-LQT2 channels in HEK293 cells and report a diversity of functional defects. Most hERG PAS-LQT2 channels formed functional channels at the plasma membrane, as measured by whole cell patch clamp recordings and cell surface biotinylation. Mutations located on one face of the PAS domain (K28E, F29L, N33T, R56Q, and M124R) caused defective channel gating, including faster deactivation kinetics and less steady-state inactivation. Conversely, the other mutations caused no measurable differences in channel gating (G53R, H70R, and A78P) or no measurable currents (Y43C, C66G, and L86R). We used a genetically encoded hERG PAS domain (NPAS) to examine whether channel dysfunction could be corrected. We found that NPAS fully restored wild-type-like deactivation kinetics and steady-state inactivation to the hERG PAS-LQT2 channels. Additionally, NPAS rescued aberrant currents in hERG R56Q channels during a dynamic ramp voltage clamp. Thus, our results reveal a putative "gating face" in the PAS domain where mutations within this region form functional channels with altered gating properties, and we show that NPAS is a general means for rescuing aberrant gating in hERG LQT2 mutant channels and may be a potential biological therapeutic.     

Functional studies on three novel HCNH2 mutations in Taiwan: identification of distinct mechanisms of channel defect and dissociation between glycosylation defect and assembly defect

Mutations of the KCNH2 with decreased channel activity lead to congenital long QT syndrome (LQTS). We studied the electrophysiological, glycosylation, trafficking and assembly properties of three novel KCNH2 mutations identified in Taiwanese patients with LQTS (p.N633D, p.R744fs, and p.P923fs). When expressed in HEK293T cells, p.N633D and p.R744fs HERG channels displayed no HERG current while p.P923fs HERG channel showed HERG current with significantly lower (34%) current density and faster inactivation kinetics. In Western blot analysis, pR744fs was the only one with glycosylation defect, which was in consistence with the confocal microscopic findings showing that p.R744fs-GFP was the only one with trafficking defect. However, p.R744fs-GFP differed from pR744fs in being fully glycosylated while p.R744fs fusion with GFP at the N-terminus revealed glycosylation defect. To access the assembly capacity of each mutant, co-immunoprecipitation was conducted. Wild type (WT), p.N633D, and p.P923fs HERG protein showed assembly ability while p.R744fs failed to assemble with neither WT nor itself.In conclusion, we identified three novel LQTS-related KCNH2 mutations and each had a distinct mechanism of channel defect. For p.R744fs mutant, adding GFP to the C-terminus rescued the glycosylation defect but the channel was still assembly defective indicating a dissociation between glycosylation and assembly defects.     

A422T mutation in HERG potassium channel retained in ER is rescurable by pharmacologic or molecular chaperones

In the present study, we characterized biologic and electrophysiologic consequences of A422T mutation in HERG K(+) channel and the role of pharmacologic or molecular chaperons by employing a heterogeneous expression system in HEK 293 cells. It was found that A422T mutation led to a marked decrease in whole-cell recording currents, and that a complexly glycosylated form protein band at 155 kDa was missing by Western blotting analysis compared to wild type (WT). And the mutant protein was mainly located in the cytoplasm as illustrated in immunocytochemical assay, indicating that the mutation underwent a trafficking defect. In addition, A422T mutation exerted remarkable dominant-negative suppression on WT, resulting in the alteration in the kinetic processes. Strikingly, trafficking-deficient A422T mutation was partially rescued by incubating the cells at a lower temperature, administration of pharmacologic chaperon, E4031 or overexpression of a chaperon molecule, Hsp90, but not Hsp70. In conclusion, missense A422T mutation in HERG K(+) channel results in its trafficking defect, which is rescurable by pharmacologic or molecular chaperones.     

Trafficking defect and proteasomal degradation contribute to the phenotype of a novel KCNH2 long QT syndrome mutation

The Kv11.1 (hERG) K+ channel plays a fundamental role in cardiac repolarization. Missense mutations in KCNH2, the gene encoding Kv11.1, cause long QT syndrome (LQTS) and frequently cause channel trafficking-deficiencies. This study characterized the properties of a novel KCNH2 mutation discovered in a LQT2 patient resuscitated from a ventricular fibrillation arrest. Proband genotyping was performed by SSCP and DNA sequencing. The electrophysiological and biochemical properties of the mutant channel were investigated after expression in HEK293 cells. The proband manifested a QTc of 554 ms prior to electrolyte normalization. Mutation analysis revealed an autosomal dominant frameshift mutation at proline 1086 (P1086fs+32X; 3256InsG). Co-immunoprecipitation demonstrated that wild-type Kv11.1 and mutant channels coassemble. Western blot showed that the mutation did not produce mature complex-glycosylated Kv11.1 channels and coexpression resulted in reduced channel maturation. Electrophysiological recordings revealed mutant channel peak currents to be similar to untransfected cells. Co-expression of channels in a 1∶1 ratio demonstrated dominant negative suppression of peak Kv11.1 currents. Immunocytochemistry confirmed that mutant channels were not present at the plasma membrane. Mutant channel trafficking rescue was attempted by incubation at reduced temperature or with the pharmacological agents E-4031. These treatments did not significantly increase peak mutant currents or induce the formation of mature complex-glycosylated channels. The proteasomal inhibitor lactacystin increased the protein levels of the mutant channels demonstrating proteasomal degradation, but failed to induce mutant Kv11.1 protein trafficking. Our study demonstrates a novel dominant-negative Kv11.1 mutation, which results in degraded non-functional channels leading to a LQT2 phenotype.