SIK2 is a key regulator for neuronal survival after ischemia via TORC1-CREB

The cAMP responsive element-binding protein (CREB) functions in a broad array of biological and pathophysiological processes. We found that salt-inducible kinase 2 (SIK2) was abundantly expressed in neurons and suppressed CREB-mediated gene expression after oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). OGD induced the degradation of SIK2 protein concomitantly with the dephosphorylation of the CREB-specific coactivator transducer of regulated CREB activity 1 (TORC1), resulting in the activation of CREB and its downstream gene targets. Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I/IV are capable of phosphorylating SIK2 at Thr484, resulting in SIK2 degradation in cortical neurons. Neuronal survival after OGD was significantly increased in neurons isolated from sik2(-/-) mice, and ischemic neuronal injury was significantly reduced in the brains of sik2(-)(/-) mice subjected to transient focal ischemia. These findings suggest that SIK2 plays critical roles in neuronal survival, is modulated by CaMK I/IV, and regulates CREB via TORC1.     

The insulin-regulated CREB coactivator TORC promotes stress resistance in Drosophila

In fasted mammals, glucose homeostasis is maintained through induction of the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) coactivator transducer of regulated CREB activity 2 (TORC2), which stimulates the gluconeogenic program in concert with the forkhead factor FOXO1. Here we show that starvation also triggers TORC activation in Drosophila, where it maintains energy balance through induction of CREB target genes in the brain. TORC mutant flies have reduced glycogen and lipid stores and are sensitive to starvation and oxidative stress. Neuronal TORC expression rescued stress sensitivity as well as CREB target gene expression in TORC mutants. During refeeding, increases in insulin signaling inhibited TORC activity through the salt-inducible kinase 2 (SIK2)-mediated phosphorylation and subsequent degradation of TORC. Depletion of neuronal SIK2 increased TORC activity and enhanced stress resistance. As disruption of insulin signaling also augmented TORC activity in adult flies, our results illustrate the importance of an insulin-regulated pathway that functions in the brain to maintain energy balance.     

Regulation of CREB-mediated gene expression by salt inducible kinase

Salt inducible kinase (SIK) was identified as a molecule induced in the adrenal glands of rats fed with a high-salt diet. A major downstream of SIK is regulation of camp-responsive element (CRE)-dependent gene expression. SIK represses the activity of CRE-binding protein (CREB) by phosphorylating a CREB-specific co-activator transducer of regulated CREB activity (TORC). When TORC is dephosphorylated it activates CREB in a CREB-phosphorylation independent manner. The importance of the dephosphorylation of TORC has been suggested by the fact that a kinase inhibitor staurosporine induces dephosphorylation of TORC and upregulates the gene expression of CYP11A, CYP11B1, CYP11B2 and StAR in adrenocortical cells. The identification of SIK caused a stir in the field of CREB studies and led to disclosure of cascades hidden behind the classical mechanism for CREB activity.     

Involvement of SIK3 in glucose and lipid homeostasis in mice

Salt-inducible kinase 3 (SIK3), an AMP-activated protein kinase-related kinase, is induced in the murine liver after the consumption of a diet rich in fat, sucrose, and cholesterol. To examine whether SIK3 can modulate glucose and lipid metabolism in the liver, we analyzed phenotypes of SIK3-deficent mice. Sik3(-/-) mice have a malnourished the phenotype (i.e., lipodystrophy, hypolipidemia, hypoglycemia, and hyper-insulin sensitivity) accompanied by cholestasis and cholelithiasis. The hypoglycemic and hyper-insulin-sensitive phenotypes may be due to reduced energy storage, which is represented by the low expression levels of mRNA for components of the fatty acid synthesis pathways in the liver. The biliary disorders in Sik3(-/-) mice are associated with the dysregulation of gene expression programs that respond to nutritional stresses and are probably regulated by nuclear receptors. Retinoic acid plays a role in cholesterol and bile acid homeostasis, wheras ALDH1a which produces retinoic acid, is expressed at low levels in Sik3(-/-) mice. Lipid metabolism disorders in Sik3(-/-) mice are ameliorated by the treatment with 9-cis-retinoic acid. In conclusion, SIK3 is a novel energy regulator that modulates cholesterol and bile acid metabolism by coupling with retinoid metabolism, and may alter the size of energy storage in mice.     

IFN‐γ inhibits basal and α‐MSH‐induced melanogenesis

Inflammatory cytokines are closely related to pigmentary changes. In this study, the effects of IFN‐γ on melanogenesis were investigated. IFN‐γ inhibits basal and α‐MSH‐induced melanogenesis in B16 melanoma cells and normal human melanocytes. MITF mRNA and protein expressions were significantly inhibited in response to IFN‐γ. IFN‐γ inhibited CREB binding to the MITF promoter but did not affect CREB phosphorylation. Instead, IFN‐γ inhibited the association of CBP and CREB through the increased association between CREB binding protein (CBP) and STAT1. These findings suggest that IFN‐γ inhibits both basal and α‐MSH‐induced melanogenesis by inhibiting MITF expression. The inhibitory action of IFN‐γ in α‐MSH‐induced melanogenesis is likely to be associated with the sequestration of CBP via the association between CBP and STAT1. These data suggest that IFN‐γ plays a role in controlling inflammation‐ or UV‐induced pigmentary changes.     

Tumor‐suppressor Fbxw7 targets SIK2 for degradation to interfere with TORC2‐AKT signaling in pancreatic cancer

The tumor suppressor F‐box/WD repeat‐containing protein 7 (Fbxw7) is a substrate‐recognition subunit of a ubiquitin ligase complex. We have previously proposed that Fbxw7 inhibited pancreatic cancer cell proliferation and invasion by targeting β‐catenin. To identify other targets of Fbxw7 involved in pancreatic carcinogenesis, we screened the human protein database for Fbxw7 target candidates using the conserved Fbxw7‐recognizing sequences. Twenty‐three candidates are identified, including five known Fbxw7 targets and two cancer‐related genes (salt inducible kinase 2 [SIK2] and ZMIZ1). We identified SIK2 as an Fbxw7 target for degradation by binding to the “TPPPS” motif of SIK2 in pancreatic cancer cells. We also demonstrated that SIK2 promoted proliferation and mitotic progression of pancreatic cancer cells. Moreover, endogenous Fbxw7 downregulates SIK2 protein level for controlling cell cycle progression, possibly by interfering the SIK2/TORC2/AKT signaling pathway to modulate p21 expression. Collectively, these data demonstrate that Fbxw7 targets the cell cycle controller, SIK2, for degradation, thereby leading to the disruption of downstream TORC2/AKT signaling to inhibit pancreatic cancer cell proliferation and cell cycle progression.     

慢性应激通过减少毛囊黑色素细胞和酪氨酸酶活性导致雌性C57小鼠毛发颜色变浅

越来越多的证据表明压力可能会导致头发颜色发生变化,但其潜在机制尚不完全清楚。本研究采用雌性C57BL/6小鼠脚底电刺激结合束缚来建立慢性应激小鼠模型,并用比色法检测小鼠皮肤和B16F10黑色素瘤细胞中黑色素含量和酪氨酸酶活性;通过酶联免疫吸附实验(ELISA)测定小鼠皮肤中肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factorα, TNF-α)、白细胞介素1β(interleukin-1β, IL-1β)和白细胞介素6 (interleukin-6, IL-6)含量;通过免疫荧光染色评估小鼠皮肤中核因子κB (nuclear factorκB, NFκB)/p65亚基的含量。结果显示:C57BL/6小鼠在慢性应激下由于皮肤中的毛囊黑色素细胞和酪氨酸酶活性降低,其毛皮颜色从暗色变为棕色。同时,慢性应激小鼠皮肤炎症反应增加,表现为皮肤中NFκB活性和TNF-α表达增加。在体外,TNF-α以剂量依赖性方式降低B16F10黑色素瘤细胞中黑色素生成和酪氨酸酶活性。以上结果表明,慢性应激通过降低雌性C57BL/6小鼠的毛囊黑色素细胞和酪氨酸酶活性来诱导皮毛颜色改变,而TNF-α可能在应激诱导的毛色改变中起重要作用。     

Balancing life and death in the ischemic brain: SIK and TORC weigh in

Activation of NMDA receptors during cerebral ischemia triggers signaling pathways that promote both neuronal death and survival. In this issue of Neuron, Sasaki et al. present evidence for a new endogenous survival pathway involving the kinase SIK2 and the CREB coactivator TORC1. The powerful neuroprotection conferred by this pathway has considerable translational potential for stroke therapy.     

MicroRNA-411a-3p靶向钙/钙调素依赖蛋白激酶4调控羊驼黑色素细胞中的黑色素生成

羊驼是重要的毛用型经济动物,具有22种天然色。毛色由皮肤中黑色素细胞产生的黑色素颗粒的分布和转运所决定的。然而,羊驼色素形成或毛色形成的分子机制复杂,由多个基因、miRNA 和lncRNA调控。但是,miR-411a-3p 对羊驼色素形成起调控作用未见报道。为研究miR-411a-3p在黑色素产生过程中的调控作用,本文将构建的miR-411a-3p载体转染到羊驼黑色素细胞中,并对毛色基因的表达进行研究。经生物信息学预测,钙/钙调素依赖蛋白激酶4(calcium-calmodulin dependent protein kinase 4, CaMK4)可能是miR-411a-3p的靶基因之一。双荧光素酶报告基因结果显示,与对照组相比,双荧光报告酶活性下降（34.78 ± 16.09）%(P<0.01),其下降趋势明显,说明CaMK4可能是miR-411a-3p的靶基因之一。miR-411a-3p通过结合CaMK4的3′ untranslated region (3′-UTR)直接调控CaMK4的表达。在羊驼黑色素细胞中转染miR-411a-3p后,CaMK4、CDK5和TYRP1在转录水平的表达量与NC组相比具有显著下降趋势,其中TYRP1下降趋势尤为显著（53.66 ± 2.11）%（P<0.01）。Western印迹检测CaMK4、CDK5、TYRP1、p-CREB在蛋白质水平的表达与NC组相比下降趋势明显,尤其是CDK5和p-CREB基因下降极为显著,分别为（70.26 ± 4.84）%（P<0.01）和（70.11 ±9.05）%（P<0.01）。Masson-Fontana法检测黑色素颗粒,结果显示,miR-411a-3p抑制黑色素细胞产生黑色素颗粒。通过紫外分光度法检测真黑素（eumelanin,EM）和褐黑素（phenomelanin,PM）显示,EM和PM的含量均被下调。结果表明,miR-411a-3p靶向抑制CaMK4表达,从而改变CREB的表达以控制黑色素的产生,此研究结果对哺乳动物毛色形成机制有重要意义。     

MicroRNA-411a-3p靶向钙/钙调素依赖蛋白激酶4调控羊驼黑色素细胞中的黑色素生成

羊驼是重要的毛用型经济动物,具有22种天然色。毛色由皮肤中黑色素细胞产生的黑色素颗粒的分布和转运所决定的。然而,羊驼色素形成或毛色形成的分子机制复杂,由多个基因、miRNA 和lncRNA调控。但是,miR-411a-3p 对羊驼色素形成起调控作用未见报道。为研究miR-411a-3p在黑色素产生过程中的调控作用,本文将构建的miR-411a-3p载体转染到羊驼黑色素细胞中,并对毛色基因的表达进行研究。经生物信息学预测,钙/钙调素依赖蛋白激酶4(calcium-calmodulin dependent protein kinase 4, CaMK4)可能是miR-411a-3p的靶基因之一。双荧光素酶报告基因结果显示,与对照组相比,双荧光报告酶活性下降（34.78 ± 16.09）%(P<0.01),其下降趋势明显,说明CaMK4可能是miR-411a-3p的靶基因之一。miR-411a-3p通过结合CaMK4的3′ untranslated region (3′-UTR)直接调控CaMK4的表达。在羊驼黑色素细胞中转染miR-411a-3p后,CaMK4、CDK5和TYRP1在转录水平的表达量与NC组相比具有显著下降趋势,其中TYRP1下降趋势尤为显著（53.66 ± 2.11）%（P<0.01）。Western印迹检测CaMK4、CDK5、TYRP1、p-CREB在蛋白质水平的表达与NC组相比下降趋势明显,尤其是CDK5和p-CREB基因下降极为显著,分别为（70.26 ± 4.84）%（P<0.01）和（70.11 ±9.05）%（P<0.01）。Masson-Fontana法检测黑色素颗粒,结果显示,miR-411a-3p抑制黑色素细胞产生黑色素颗粒。通过紫外分光度法检测真黑素（eumelanin,EM）和褐黑素（phenomelanin,PM）显示,EM和PM的含量均被下调。结果表明,miR-411a-3p靶向抑制CaMK4表达,从而改变CREB的表达以控制黑色素的产生,此研究结果对哺乳动物毛色形成机制有重要意义。     

Stimulation of melanogenesis in murine melanoma cells by 2-mercapto-1-(beta-4-pyridethyl) benzimidazole (MPB)

The effects of 2-mercapto-1-(beta-4-pyridethyl) benzimidazole (MPB), one of the benzimidazole derivatives designed for a nucleic acid analogue, on melanogenesis of murine B16-F10 melanoma cell lines were investigated. MPB (40 microM) induced a striking dendricity in B16 melanoma cells within 12 h and maximal dendricity between 48 and 72 h. The stimulation of melanin synthesis was observed after only 2 days of treatment together with a dose-dependent growth inhibition. Moreover, MPB increased the activity of tyrosinase through the expression of tyrosinase mRNA without increasing the intracellular cyclic AMP content. MPB-induced melanogenesis was inhibited by novel protein kinase A inhibitors, KT-5720 and H-85. These findings indicate that MPB stimulated B16 cells to terminally differentiate and may be a useful drug in studying the regulation of melanogenesis.     

Characterization of a small molecule inhibitor of melanogenesis that inhibits tyrosinase activity and scavenges nitric oxide (NO)

Background

Excessive melanin production and accumulation are characteristics of a large number of skin diseases, including melasma, and post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation. During our on-going search for new agents with an inhibitory effect on tyrosinase, we synthesized a new type of tyrosinase inhibitor, 4-(thiazolidin-2-yl)benzene-1,2-diol (MHY-794), which directly inhibits mushroom tyrosinase.

Methods

The inhibitory effect of MHY-794 on tyrosinase activity and nitric oxide (NO) scavenging activity was evaluated in cell free system. Additional experiments were performed using B16F10 melanoma cells to demonstrate the effects of MHY-794 in vitro. HRM2 hairless mice were used to evaluate anti-melanogenic effects of MHY-794 in vivo.

Results

MHY-794 effectively inhibited mushroom tyrosinase activity in cell free system. In silico docking simulation also supported the inhibitory effects of MHY-794 on mushroom tyrosinase. MHY-794 also proved to be effective at scavenging nitric oxide (NO), which serves as an important modulator in the melanogenesis signaling pathway. In addition, MHY-794 effectively inhibited SNP (NO donor)-induced melanogenesis by directly inhibiting tyrosinase and diminishing NO-mediated melanogenesis signaling in B16 melanoma cells. The anti-melanogenic effects of MHY-794 were further confirmed in HRM2 hairless mice. Ultraviolet light (UV) significantly up-regulated NO-mediated melanogenesis signaling in HRM2 hairless mice, but MHY-794 effectively inhibited both melanogenesis and diminished UV-induced NO-signaling.

Conclusions

Our results indicate that MHY-794 is highly effective at inhibiting NO-mediated melanogenesis in vitro and in vivo by direct NO scavenging and directly inhibiting tyrosinase activity, and suggest that MHY-794 be considered a new developmental candidate for the treatment of hyper-pigmentation disorders.

General significance

MHY-794, which showed great efficacy on NO-mediated melanogenesis by direct NO scavenging as well as direct inhibition of tyrosinase catalytic activity, might be utilized for the development of a new candidate for treatment of the hyper-pigmentation disorders.     

In vitro and in vivo melanogenesis inhibition by biochanin A from Trifolium pratense

Our previous study showed that a methanol extract from Trifolium pratense exerted potent inhibitory activity on melanogenesis in mouse B16 melanoma cells. In the present study, the active compound in this Chinese herb extract was isolated and identified as biochanin A by mass spectrum, (1)H-NMR, and (13)C-NMR analysis. The inhibitory effects of biochanin A on melanogenesis were investigated in vitro in cultured melanoma cells and in vivo in zebrafish and mice. Biochanin A dose-dependently inhibited both melanogenesis and cellular tyrosinase activity in B16 cells and in zebrafish embryos. Application of a cream containing 2% biochanin A twice daily to the skin of mice also increased the skin-whitening index value after 1 week of treatment, and the increase continued for another 2 weeks. Biochanin A was confirmed as a good candidate for use as a skin-whitening agent in the treatment of skin hyperpigmentation disorders.