Molecular Diversity of the Rumen Microbiome of Norwegian Reindeer on Natural Summer Pasture

The molecular diversity of the rumen microbiome was investigated in five semi-domesticated adult female Norwegian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) grazing on natural summer pastures on the coast of northern Norway (71.00° N, 25.30° E). Mean population densities (numbers per gram wet weight) of methanogenic archaea, rumen bacteria and ciliate protozoa, estimated using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), were 3.17 × 10⁹, 5.17 × 10¹¹ and 4.02 × 10⁷, respectively. Molecular diversity of rumen methanogens was revealed using a 16S rRNA gene library (54 clones) constructed using pooled PCR products from the whole rumen contents of the five individual reindeer. Based upon a similarity criterion of <97%, a total of 19 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified, nine of which are potential new species. The 16S rRNA sequences generated from the reindeer rumen exhibited a high degree of sequence similarity to methanogens affiliated with the families Methanobacteriaceae (14 OTUs) and Methanosarcinaceae (one OTU). Four of the OTUs detected belonged to a group of uncultivated archaea previously found in domestic ruminants and thought to be dominant in the rumen together with Methanobrevibacter spp. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis profiling of the rumen bacterial 16S rRNA gene and the protozoal 18S rRNA gene indicated a high degree of animal variation, although some bands were common to all individuals. Automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA) profiling of the ruminal Neocallimastigales population indicated that the reindeer are likely to contain more than one type of anaerobic fungus. The ARISA profile from one animal was distinct from the other four. This is the first molecular investigation of the ruminal methanogenic archaea in reindeer, revealing higher numbers than expected based on methane emission data available. Also, many of the reindeer archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences were similar to those reported in domesticated ruminants in Australia, Canada, China, New Zealand and Venezuela, supporting previous findings that there seems to be no host type or geographical effect on the methanogenic archaea community structure in ruminants.     

Novel Rumen Bacterial Diversity in Two Geographically Separated Sub-Species of Reindeer

Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) live under austere nutritional conditions on the high-arctic archipelago of Svalbard, while semi-domesticated Norwegian reindeer (R. tarandus tarandus) migrate between lush coastal summer pastures and inland winter pastures with lichens on mainland Norway. Svalbard reindeer are known to have high rumen concentrations of cellulolytic bacteria, ranging from 15% of the viable population in summer to 35% in winter, compared to only 2.5% in Norwegian reindeer. Their rumen bacterial diversity was investigated through comparative analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences (∼1.5 kb in length) generated from clone libraries (n = 121) and bacterial isolates (n = 51). LIBSHUFF comparisons of the composition of the two 16S rRNA libraries from Norwegian reindeer showed a significant effect of artificial feeding compared to natural pasture, but failed to yield significant differences between libraries from Norwegian reindeer and Svalbard reindeer. The combined sequences from reindeer were not significantly different from those reported in wild Thompson’s gazelle in Kenya but did differ from those reported in domestic cattle in Japan. A total of 90 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified by employing a criterion of 97% similarity, while the Chao1 index estimated the reindeer bacterial rumen population richness at 698 OTUs. The majority of the clone library sequences (92.5%) represented novel strains with <97% identity to any known sequence in the public database, most of them affiliated with the bacterial phylum Firmicutes (low G+C Gram-positives) related to the order Clostridiales (76.7%), while Gram-negative bacteria in the Bacteriodales (Prevotella–Bacteroides group) contributed to 22.5%. Also, six of the isolates were putatively novel strains, possibly representing new species in the Clostridium subphylum (cluster XIVa), Actinomyces and Butyrivibrio.     

Functional Anatomy of the Omasum in High Arctic Svalbard Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) and Norwegian Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

The structure and fill of the omasum was investigated in summer and in winter in adult female reindeer living on the polar desert and tundra of the high Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and in sub-Arctic mountain habitats in northern Norway The mean total mass of the omasum in non-lactating adult female Svalbard reindeer was 467 g (0.65 g per 100 g live body mass (BM)) in September and 477 g (1.03 g per 100 g BM) in April. By contrast, the mean mass of the omasum in non-lactating adult reindeer in northern Norway was 534 g (0.83 g per 100 g BM) in September but only 205 g (0.35 g per 100 g BM p<0.05) in late March, owing to a decrease in both tissue mass and the wet mass of the contents of the organ. The mean absorptive surface of the omasum in Svalbard reindeer was 2300 cm2 in September and 2023 cm2 in April. In Norwegian reindeer, by contrast, the absorptive surface area decreased from 2201 cm2 in September to 1181 cm2 (p<0.05) in late March. The marked seasonal decline of omasal tissue and contents in Norwegian reindeer probably results from intake of highly digestible forage plants, including lichens, in winter. Svalbard reindeer, a non-migratory sub-species, survive eating poor quality fibrous vascular plants in winter. The absence of any marked seasonal change in the mass, total absorptive surface area or filling of the omasum in Svalbard reindeer in winter despite a substantial decline in body mass presumably reflects their need to maintain maximum absorption of nutrients, including volatile fatty acids, when feeding on such poorly fermentable forage.     

Disease transmission in an extreme environment: nematode parasites infect reindeer during the Arctic winter

Parasitic nematodes are found in almost all wild vertebrate populations but few studies have investigated these host-parasite relationships in the wild. For parasites with free-living stages, the external environment has a major influence on life-history traits, and development and survival is generally low at sub-zero temperatures. For reindeer that inhabit the high Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, parasite transmission is expected to occur in the summer, due to the extreme environmental conditions and the reduced food intake by the host in winter. Here we show experimentally that, contrary to most parasitic nematodes, Marshallagia marshalli of Svalbard reindeer is transmitted during the Arctic winter. Winter transmission was demonstrated by removing parasites in the autumn, using a novel delayed-release anthelmintic bolus, and estimating re-infection rates in reindeer sampled in October, February and April. Larval stages of nematodes were identified using molecular tools, whereas adult stages were identified using microscopy. The abundance of M. marshalli adult worms and L4s increased significantly from October to April, indicating that reindeer were being infected with L3s from the pasture throughout the winter. To our knowledge, this study is the first to experimentally demonstrate over-winter transmission of a gastro-intestinal nematode parasite in a wild animal. Potential mechanisms associated with this unusual transmission strategy are discussed in light of our knowledge of the life-history traits of this parasite.     

Evidence for continued transmission of parasitic nematodes in reindeer during the Arctic winter.

Living in the high Arctic, the Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) and its trichostrongyle nematodes experience a long cold winter from October to late May/early June. Over this period, transmission would be expected to be low. However, in culled reindeer the abundance of infection increased from autumn to late winter, providing evidence for continued transmission within this period. To our knowledge this is the first time this has been demonstrated in a climate with temperatures consistently below 0 degrees C. In one winter (1996-1997), the average fraction of nematodes found as larvae in the abomasal mucosa increased from around 10% to 50% between October and March. This suggests that arrested development took place throughout the winter. We found no evidence for an efficient acquired immune response towards the nematodes. The abundance of infection did not tend to decrease with increasing host age after an earlier peak, but levelled off instead, as predicted by a simple immigration-death model. In the late winter when the nutritional plane is low, both adult reindeer and calves had high worm burdens at intensities that may affect their condition and fitness.     

Development and application of a delayed-release anthelmintic intra-ruminal bolus system for experimental manipulation of nematode worm burdens

In order to quantify the impact of parasites on host population dynamics, experimental manipulations that perturb the parasite-host relationship are needed but, logistically, this is difficult for wild hosts. Here, we describe the use of a delayed-release anthelmintic delivery system that can be administered when the hosts can be captured and its activity delayed until a more appropriate period in the host-parasite cycle. Our model system is Svalbard reindeer infected with a nematode parasite, Marshallagia marshalli, which appears to accumulate during the Arctic winter. To determine the extent to which this occurs and the effect on host fitness, reindeer need to be treated with anthelmintics in late autumn but they can only be caught and handled in April. To solve this problem, we devised an intra-ruminal capsule that releases the anthelmintic from up to 6 months after being administered. The capsule was trialed in cannulated sheep and red deer to determine optimum capsule orifice size and release rates. Capsules were estimated to release placebo for 100-153 days followed by abamectin for 22-34 days. To test the efficacy of treatment in reindeer, capsules were administered in April and retrieved in October. All capsules had fully released the anthelmintic and treated reindeer had significantly lower worm burdens than controls. Thus, success of this system allows repeated treatment over several years to test the effect of winter parasitism on host fitness.     

Seasonal changes in the ruminal microflora of the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus).

The dominant rumen bacteria in high-arctic Svalbard reindeer were characterized, their population densities were estimated, and ruminal pH was determined in summer, when food quality and availability are good, and in winter, when they are poor. In summer the total cultured viable population density was (2.09 +/- 1.26) X 10(10) cells ml-1, whereas in winter it was (0.36 +/- 0.29) X 10(10) cells ml-1, representing a decrease to 17% of the summer population density. On culture, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens represented 22% of the bacterial population in summer and 30% in winter. Streptococcus bovis represented 17% of the bacterial population in summer but only 4% in winter. Methanogenic bacteria were present at 10(4) cells ml-1 in summer and 10(7) cells ml-1 in winter. In summer and winter, respectively, the proportions of the viable population showing the following activities were as follows: starch utilization, 68 and 63%; fiber digestion, 31 and 74%; cellulolysis, 15 and 35%; xylanolysis, 30 and 58%; proteolysis, 51 and 28%; ureolysis, 40 and 54%; and lactate utilization, 13 and 4%. The principal cellulolytic bacterium was B. fibrisolvens, which represented 66 and 52% of the cellulolytic population in summer and winter, respectively. The results indicate that the microflora of the rumen of Svalbard reindeer is highly effective in fiber digestion and nitrogen metabolism, allowing the animals to survive under the austere nutritional conditions typical of their high-arctic habitat.     

Seasonal changes in the ruminal microflora of the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus)

The dominant rumen bacteria in high-arctic Svalbard reindeer were characterized, their population densities were estimated, and ruminal pH was determined in summer, when food quality and availability are good, and in winter, when they are poor. In summer the total cultured viable population density was (2.09 +/- 1.26) X 10(10) cells ml-1, whereas in winter it was (0.36 +/- 0.29) X 10(10) cells ml-1, representing a decrease to 17% of the summer population density. On culture, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens represented 22% of the bacterial population in summer and 30% in winter. Streptococcus bovis represented 17% of the bacterial population in summer but only 4% in winter. Methanogenic bacteria were present at 10(4) cells ml-1 in summer and 10(7) cells ml-1 in winter. In summer and winter, respectively, the proportions of the viable population showing the following activities were as follows: starch utilization, 68 and 63%; fiber digestion, 31 and 74%; cellulolysis, 15 and 35%; xylanolysis, 30 and 58%; proteolysis, 51 and 28%; ureolysis, 40 and 54%; and lactate utilization, 13 and 4%. The principal cellulolytic bacterium was B. fibrisolvens, which represented 66 and 52% of the cellulolytic population in summer and winter, respectively. The results indicate that the microflora of the rumen of Svalbard reindeer is highly effective in fiber digestion and nitrogen metabolism, allowing the animals to survive under the austere nutritional conditions typical of their high-arctic habitat.     

Effects of seasonal changes in food quality and food intake on the transport of sodium and butyrate across ruminal epithelium of reindeer

Transport of 22Na and 14C-butyrate across the ruminal epithelium of captive reindeer fed a concentrate diet in summer (n=5) and in winter (n=5) and from free-ranging reindeer taken from summer (n=3) and winter pasture (n=5) was measured in vitro in Ussing chambers. Significant amounts of both Na+ and butyrate were transported across the isolated epithelium without any external driving force. The ruminal transport of Na+ and butyrate were interacting, as evidenced by both the observed amiloride-induced reduction of net butyrate-transport and by the positive correlation between net transport of butyrate and Na+. Amiloride also reduced the net transport of Na+ without significantly affecting the short-circuit current, indicating the presence of an apical Na+/H+ exchanger in the ruminal epithelium of reindeer. The captive reindeer increased the dry matter intake of a constant quality concentrate from winter to summer, but this neither affected their ruminal transport capacity nor their ruminal surface enlargement factor (SEF). Free-ranging reindeer increased their ruminal transport capacity for Na+ and butyrate from summer to winter but simultaneously reduced their ruminal SEF. The present data indicate that this food-induced increase in transport capacity was attributed to changes in the nutrient composition of the diet.     

16S rDNA directed PCR primers and detection of methanogens in the bovine rumen

AIMS: To assess the diversity of ruminal methanogens in a grazing cow, and develop PCR primers targeting the predominant methanogens. METHODS AND RESULTS: DNA was extracted from rumen contents collected from a cow grazing pasture. Archaeal 16S rRNA genes were amplified by PCR using two pairs of archaea-specific primers, and clone libraries prepared. Selected clones were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that for one primer pair, most sequences clustered with Methanobrevibacter spp. whereas with the other primer pair most clustered with Methanosphaera stadtmanae. One sequence belonged to the Crenarcheota. PCR primers were designed to detect Msp. stadtmanae and differentiate between Mbb. ruminantium and Mbb. smithii and successfully tested. CONCLUSIONS: The ruminal methanogens included Mbb. ruminantium, Mbb. smithii, Mbb. thaueri and methanogens similar to Msp.stadtmanae. The study showed that apparent methanogen diversity can be affected by selectivity from the archaea-specific primers used to create clone libraries. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study revealed a greater diversity of ruminal methanogens in grazing cows than previously recognized. It also shows the need for care in interpreting methanogen diversity using PCR-based analyses. The new PCR primers will enable more information to be obtained on Msp. stadtmanae and Methanobrevibacter spp. in the rumen.     

Analysis of Rumen Methanogen Diversity in Water Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) Under Three Different Diets

The water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is a prominent livestock species for the production of milk and meat in many countries. We investigated the diversity of rumen methanogens in Mediterranean water buffaloes maintained in Brazil under different diets: corn silage, grazing pasture, or sugar cane. A total of 467 clones were isolated from three methanogen 16S rRNA gene clone libraries that each represented a distinct feed type. The 467 clones were assigned to 19 species-level operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Four OTUs were represented in all three libraries, eight OTUs were library-specific, six OTUs were found in only the corn silage and pasture grazing libraries, and one OTU was shared only between pasture grazing and sugar cane libraries. We found that Methanobrevibacter-related sequences were the most abundant in the water buffaloes sampled for our analysis, in contrast to previously reported studies showing that Methanomicrobium mobile-like methanogens were the most abundant methanogens in water buffaloes of Murrah and Surti breeds sampled in India. Considering the worldwide distribution of water buffaloes and the likely wide variety of diets provided, our results combined with studies from other groups support that larger scope analyses of microbiomes for this livestock species would provide great insight into the contribution of geographical location, breed, and diet in determining the population structure of rumen microorganisms.     

Bacterial diversity in the bulk soil and rhizosphere fractions of Lolium perenne and Trifolium repens as revealed by PCR restriction analysis of 16S rDNA

The rhizosphere of Trifolium repens and Lolium perenne was divided into three fractions: the bulk soil, the soil adhering to the roots and the washed roots (rhizoplane and endorhizosphere). After isolation and purification of DNA from these fractions, 16S rDNA was amplified by PCR and cloned to obtain a collection of 16S rRNA genes representative of the bacterial communities of these three fractions. The genes were then characterized by PCR restriction analysis. Each different profile was used to define an operational taxonomic unit (OTU). The numbers of OTUs and the numbers of clones among these OTUs allowed to calculate a diversity index. The number of OTUs decreased as root proximity increased and a few OTUs became dominant, resulting in a lower diversity index. In the root fraction of T. repens, the restriction profile of the dominant OTU matched the theoretical profile of the 16S rRNA gene of Rhizobium leguminosarum. This study showed that plant roots create a selective environment for microbial populations.     

Effects of density-dependence and climate on the dynamics of a Svalbard reindeer population

To determine the main factors affecting the population dynamics of Svalbard reindeer, we analysed 21 yr of annual censuses, including data on population size, recruitment rate (calves per female) and mortality (number of deaths), from the Reindalen reindeer population. In accordance with previous studies on population dynamics of Svalbard reindeer, we found large inter-annual variation in population size, mortality and recruitment rates within the study area. Population size decreased in years with low recruitment rate as well as high winter mortality and vice versa. Apparently. the fluctuations were due to both direct density-dependent food limitation and variation in winter climate associated with high precipitation and icing of the feeding range. We found no delayed density-dependence or effect of climatic conditions during summer on the population dynamics. The mortality during die-off years was mainly of calves and very old individuals, indicating that the population was more vulnerable to high die oft in years following high recruitment rate. These results suggest an unstable interaction between the reindeer population and its food supply in these predator-free environments.     

Methanogen population in a marine biofilm corrosive to mild steel

This study was conducted to analyze the methanogen population in a corrosive marine biofilm based on 16S rDNA analysis, using a PCR-cloning-sequencing approach. There were 80 methanogen clones developed from the PCR-amplified DNA extracted from the biofilm on the mild steel surface. All clones were categorized into one of five operational taxonomy units (OTUs). Two OTUs (comprising 57 clones) were affiliated with the acetotrophic Methanosaeta genus; the remaining three OTUs (23 clones) were affiliated with the hydrogenotrophic genera of Methanogenium, Methanoplanus and Methanocalculus. The hydrogenotrophic methanogens could directly cause metal corrosion through cathodic depolarization, whereas the acetotrophic methanogens grew syntrophically with corrosion-causing sulfate-reducing bacteria, as observed by fluorescent in situ hybridization, and thus contribute indirectly to metal corrosion.     

Phylogenetic Study of Methanogens Associated with Rumen Ciliates

The phylogeny of methanogenic archaea associated with ciliate protozoa in a sheep rumen was investigated. Ruminal ciliate protozoa were exhaustively washed and mixtures of genomic DNA extracted. Archaea-specific nested PCR amplification was conducted with the ciliate genomic mixture. The resultant small subunit (16S) ribosomal RNA gene (ssu rDNA) was cloned into Escherichia coli JM 109. Many methanogens were still observed on and/or in ciliate cells by fluorescent microscopy even after exhaustive washing with buffer. Partial sequences of ssu rDNA close to Methanobrevibacter smithii were dominant in the retrieved sequences. RFLP analyses on the retrieved sequences revealed the absence of Methanobrevibacter ruminantium in the protozoal preparation. The association of Methanobrevibacter spp. with ruminal ciliate protozoa was demonstrated by the isolation of archaeal ssu rDNA phylogenetically close to that of M. smithii. Received: 16 February 1999 / Accepted: 20 April 1999     

Local variation in arctic fox abundance on Svalbard,Norway

Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) numbers vary greatly, with cyclic fluctuations often associated with fluctuations in microtine rodents. However, in areas where small prey mammals are absent, such as Iceland and Svalbard, such cyclic fluctuations are lacking. Annual fluctuations in the density of the arctic fox population on the Brøggerhalvøya peninsula and Kongsfjorden region on Svalbard, Norway, were studied from 1990 to 2001 by using indices of fox abundance. All indices showed similar trends; fox numbers were low in 1990, increased until 1995 whereupon they decreased sharply, before increasing again and levelling off in 2001. Increasing numbers of foxes during the first part of the study paralleled increasing numbers of Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) carcasses in winter and increasing numbers of nesting barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) in summer. This study shows that the number of arctic foxes varies greatly even in areas without fluctuating microtine rodents.     

Phylogenetic analysis of methanogens in sheep rumen ecosystem and detection of Methanomicrobium mobile By fluorescence in situ hybridization

The population of methanogens in the sheep rumen microbial ecosystem was studied by using 16S rDNA cloning analysis, epifluorescence microscopy (which detects autofluorescence of a specific cofactor F420 in methanogens) and the 16S rRNA-targeted in situ hybridization technique. The 16S rDNA clone libraries were constructed by PCR amplification with an Archaea-specific primer set and partial sequencing of the clonal 16S rDNAs was done. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the clones were affiliated with Methanomicrobium ruminantium and mobile, Methanobrevibacter smithii. Epifluorescence microscopy (F420 autofluorescence) and in situ hybridization by using a newly designed M. mobile-specific 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probe found that methanogens accounted for approximately 3.6% of total ruminal microorganisms and approximately 54% of the total methanogens were M. mobile.     

Contrasting effects of summer and winter warming on body mass explain population dynamics in a food‐limited Arctic herbivore

The cumulative effects of climate warming on herbivore vital rates and population dynamics are hard to predict, given that the expected effects differ between seasons. In the Arctic, warmer summers enhance plant growth which should lead to heavier and more fertile individuals in the autumn. Conversely, warm spells in winter with rainfall (rain‐on‐snow) can cause ‘icing’, restricting access to forage, resulting in starvation, lower survival and fecundity. As body condition is a ‘barometer’ of energy demands relative to energy intake, we explored the causes and consequences of variation in body mass of wild female Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) from 1994 to 2015, a period of marked climate warming. Late winter (April) body mass explained 88% of the between‐year variation in population growth rate, because it strongly influenced reproductive loss, and hence subsequent fecundity (92%), as well as survival (94%) and recruitment (93%). Autumn (October) body mass affected ovulation rates but did not affect fecundity. April body mass showed no long‐term trend (coefficient of variation, CV = 8.8%) and was higher following warm autumn (October) weather, reflecting delays in winter onset, but most strongly, and negatively, related to ‘rain‐on‐snow’ events. October body mass (CV = 2.5%) increased over the study due to higher plant productivity in the increasingly warm summers. Density‐dependent mass change suggested competition for resources in both winter and summer but was less pronounced in recent years, despite an increasing population size. While continued climate warming is expected to increase the carrying capacity of the high Arctic tundra, it is also likely to cause more frequent icing events. Our analyses suggest that these contrasting effects may cause larger seasonal fluctuations in body mass and vital rates. Overall our findings provide an important ‘missing’ mechanistic link in the current understanding of the population biology of a keystone species in a rapidly warming Arctic.     

Archaea diversity within a commercial biogas plant utilizing herbal biomass determined by 16S rDNA and mcrA analysis

Aims: The Archaea diversity was evaluated in an agricultural biogas plant supplied with cattle liquid manure and maize silage under mesophilic conditions. Methods and Results: Two different genes (16S rRNA; methyl‐coenzyme‐M‐reductase, MCR) targeted by three different PCR primer sets were selected and used for the construction of three clone libraries comprising between 104 and 118 clones. The clone libraries were analysed by restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP). Between 11 and 31 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were detected and assigned to orders Methanomicrobiales, Methanosarcinales and Methanobacteriales. Over 70% of all Archaea OTUs belong to the order Methanomicrobiales which mostly include hydrogenotrophic methanogens. Acetotrophic methanogens were detected in minor rates. Similar relative values were obtained by a quantitative real‐time PCR analysis. Conclusions: The results implied that in this biogas plant the most of the methane formation resulted from the conversion of H₂ and CO₂. Significance and Impact of the Study: This study reports, for the first time, a molecular analysis of the archaeal community in this type of agricultural biogas plants. Therein the hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis seems to be the major pathway of methane formation. These results are in contrast with the common thesis that in biogas fermentations the primary substrate for methanogenesis is acetate.     

The role of parasites in the dynamics of a reindeer population

Even though theoretical models show that parasites may regulate host population densities, few empirical studies have given support to this hypothesis. We present experimental and observational evidence for a host-parasite interaction where the parasite has sufficient impact on host population dynamics for regulation to occur. During a six year study of the Svalbard reindeer and its parasitic gastrointestinal nematode Ostertagia gruehneri we found that anthelminthic treatment in April-May increased the probability of a reindeer having a calf in the next year, compared with untreated controls. However, treatment did not influence the over-winter survival of the reindeer. The annual variation in the degree to which parasites depressed fecundity was positively related to the abundance of O. gruehneri infection the previous October, which in turn was related to host density two years earlier. In addition to the treatment effect, there was a strong negative effect of winter precipitation on the probability of female reindeer having a calf. A simple matrix model was parameterized using estimates from our experimental and observational data. This model shows that the parasite-mediated effect on fecundity was sufficient to regulate reindeer densities around observed host densities.