Body Morph Assessment: Preliminary Report on the Development of a Computerized Measure of Body Image

STEWART, TIFFANY M., DONALD A. WILLIAMSON, MONIQUE A. M. SMEETS, AND FRANK L. GREENWAY. Body morph assessment: preliminary report on the development of a computerized measure of body image. Objective: To develop a prototype of the Body Morph Assessment (BMA), and to test the reliability and validity of this new measure of body image. The BMA is a realistic and relatively simple procedure that uses computer morphing for the assessment of body image. For the purposes of this preliminary study, a prototype of the BMA was developed for usage with white women ranging from very thin to obese. Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 72 subjects participated in tests of reliability, content, and convergent validity of the BMA. Results: The reliability and validity of the BMA was supported by the results of this study. In a test of convergent validity, the measures of current, ideal, and reasonable body size were positively correlated with their equivalents from a similar body image assessment procedure. In addition, reliability coefficients were found to be satisfactory for all variables. Participants found the human figural stimuli to be realistic. Discussion: These preliminary findings support the reliability and validity of the BMA with white women. Given these positive findings, we plan to extend the procedure to males and to other racial and ethnic groups.     

Calcium binding sites in the vesicles of the carotid and aortic body chief cells

Summary Chief cells of the carotid and aortic body chemoreceptors possess numerous cytoplasmic dense-core vesicles which are known to contain primarily dopamine. Following fixation in solutions containing 50 mM CaCl₂, a 20–30 nm electron-dense particle (EDP) is often observed eccentrically located in many of the vesicles. Approximately 44 % of the carotid body and 16 % of the aortic body vesicles contain an EDP. The EDP probably represents the Ca^{+ +} binding site critical to the stimulus-secretion coupling events culminating in exocytosis of these vesicles. The presence of Ca^{+ +} in the cytoplasmic vesicles was verified by electron probe X-ray microanalysis.Supported by a Grant-in-Aid from the American Heart Association (77630) and by funds contributed in part by the Texas Affiliate. The authors wish to thank Ms. Teri Heitman for her excellent technical assistance     

Paramural Bodies in Callus Beside the Isolation Layer of the Graft Union

The isolation layer of the graft union is a changeable component. It is formed and thickened during the early stage (Fig. 6) and disrupted, thinned and even disappeared durmg tile later stage of development of the graft (Fig. 1, 2, 14). A number of vesicles, paramarat bodies (Fig. 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 19), multivesicular bodies (Fig. 4, 15, 16, 18, 20) and concentric membrane bodies (Fig. 7) are observed in callus 'beside the isolation layer during both stages of development based on transmission electron microscopy. The paramural body comprises invagination of plasmalemma containing numerous vesicles and/or tubules situated between the cell wall and the plasmalemma. The multivesicular body is a organelle about 0.5-μm in diameter with a single membrane surrounding several smaller single vesicles. It is possible that multivesicular body and/or single iesicles transverse the plasmalemma to produce paramural body. The figures show that the paramural bodies appear always beside the isolalion layer at the different stages of development of the graft union and the multivesicular bodies appear mostly near the region where plasmodesmata are secondarily formed between the stock and the scion (Fig. 15, 17, 20). This may reflect that paramural body and multivesi- cular body, as well as single vesicles, are capable of performing vesicular transport. The deposition and reabsorption of material of the isolation layer occur due to vesicular transport. All the above facts seem to indicate that paramural body, multivesicular body and single vesicles can be both endocytotic and exocytotic. The present study supports the theory of vesicular transport, and authors suggest that transcellular cytosis occurs not only through plasmodesmata but also through plasmalemma in oapoplast. The single vesicles, paramural bodies and multivesicular bodies take an active part in the transport process of symplast-apoplast-symplast.     

It is time to explore the impact of length of gestation and fetal health on the human lifespan

A recently proposed principal law of lifespan (PLOSP) proposes to extend the whole human lifespan by elongating different life stages. As the preborn stage of a human being, gestation is the foundation for the healthy development of the human body. The antagonistic pleiotropy (AP) theory of aging states that there is a trade-off between early life fitness and late-life mortality. The question is whether slower development during the gestation period would be associated with a longer lifespan. Among all living creatures, the length of the gestation period is highly positively correlated to the length of the lifespan, although such a correlation is thought to be influenced by the body sizes of different species. While examining the relationship between lifespan length and body size within the same species, dogs exhibit a negative correlation between lifespans and body sizes, while there is no such correlation among domestic cats. For humans, most adverse gestational environments shorten the period of gestation, and their impacts are long-term. While many issues remain unsolved, various developmental features have been linked to the conditions during the gestation period. Given that the length of human pregnancies can vary randomly by as long as 5 weeks, it is worth investigating whether a slow steady healthy gestation over a longer period will be related to a longer and healthier lifespan. This article discusses the potential benefits, negative impacts, and challenges of the relative elongation of the gestation period.     

The relationship between body and gonadal weights of the dusky leaf monkey (Presbytis obscura)

Data from 25 male and 44 female free-ranging dusky leaf monkeys, Presbytis obscura,are analyzed. In a male the mean total testicular weight, 5.82 g, represents 0.078% of the mean adult body weight, 7.39 kg. The mean total ovarian weight, 0.52 g, represents 0.008% of the mean female adult body weight, 6.47 kg. A moderate degree of sexual dimorphism thus exists in this species, female body weight representing 88% that of the male. No seasonal variation in the adult body weight or total gonadal weight of either sex occurs. Only in males is there a strong positive correlation between left and right gonadal weight, and no correlation exists between the total gonadal weight and the estimated age of either male or female adults. Among adults, only females evince a significant positive correlation between total gonadal weight and body weight. No marked change in total ovarian weight occurs during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, or lactation.     

军队院校毕业班学员的人体成分检测

目的：通过测量军校毕业学员的人体成分,探讨军校毕业学员与普通居民的区别,并为建立相关标准提供依据。方法：按飞行院校、分流院校、合训院校、技术院校和士官学校分层抽取5968名毕业学员,分别进行人体成分检测,根据结果划定5%-95%分布上下限。并就军校毕业学员的体脂百分比、体质指数（BMI）、肌肉百分比、骨质百分比指标与同年龄、同性别城乡居民进行比较。结果：1军队院校毕业学员体脂百分比的参考值范围为10.3%-20.7%（男）和19.2%-30.1%（女）;BMI参考值范围为19.30-25.70（男）和18.00-23.99（女）;瘦体重百分比参考值范围为79.3%-86.7%（男）和69.9%-80.7%（女）;肌肉百分比参考值范围为74.2%-84.0%（男）和65.2%-75.3%（女）;骨质百分比参考值范围为5.0%-5.8%（男）和4.7%-5.5%（女）。2与同年龄、同性别城乡居民比较,军队院校毕业学员的体脂百分比明显较少,肌肉百分比、骨质百分比明显较高。结论：1军队院校毕业学员的身体成分数据明显优于同年龄、同性别城乡居民,总体表现为体脂较少,肌肉和骨质较多。2军队院校毕业学员的体质状况不能简单采用民用标准,需建立一套符合军校毕业学员的标准。     

Regional body volumes, BMI, waist circumference, and percentage fat in severely obese adults

Objective: This study presents total body volume (TBV) and regional body volume, and their relationships with widely used body composition indices [BMI, waist circumference (WC), and percentage body fat (% fat)] in severely obese adults (BMI ≥35 kg/m²). Research Methods and Procedures: We measured TBV, trunk volume (TV), arm volume (AV), leg volume (LV), and WC and estimated % fat in 32 severely obese persons with BMI 36 to 62 kg/m² (23 women; age, 19 to 65 years; weight, 91 to 182 kg) and in 58 persons with BMI <35 kg/m² (28 women; age, 18 to 83 years; weight, 48 to 102 kg) using a newly validated 3‐day photonic image scanner (3DPS, Model C9036–02, Hamamatsu Co., Japan) and calculated TV/TBV, AV/TBV, and LV/TBV. Results: Men had significantly larger TBV and higher TV/TBV and AV/TBV, but significantly lower LV/TBV than women, independently of BMI. TV/TBV increased while AV/TBV and LV/TBV decreased with increasing BMI, WC, and % fat, and the rate of increase in TV/TBV per % fat was significantly greater in severely obese individuals than in individuals with BMI <35 kg/m². The relationships for TBV with % fat were much lower than with BMI or WC. Conclusion: Body volume gains were mainly in the trunk region in adults, irrespective of sex or BMI. For a given BMI, WC, or % fat, men had a significantly larger TV than women. The implication is that men could have higher health risks due to having higher trunk body weight as a proportion of total body weight compared with severely obese or less severely obese women.     

Visceral Adipose Tissue in Women: Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Fat Gain,Time, and Race

Objective: To determine the effects of fat gain, time, and race on the accumulation of visceral adipose tissue (VAT) in a group of normal‐weight premenopausal women. Research Methods and Procedures: Sixty‐five women participated in the study (32 African American and 33 white). The mean age of subjects was 34 ± 6 years (range, 22 to 47 years). Eligible subjects were women who had body mass indices <25 kg/m² at baseline and who had completed evaluations at baseline and at follow‐up year 1, without intervention. A subset of subjects was reevaluated annually for up to 4 years. Body composition was assessed by DXA, and VAT was determined from a single computed tomography scan. A linear mixed model was used to examine changes in VAT over time, with total body fat as a covariate Results: Total fat mass was not significantly different between races at baseline and increased significantly in both groups over time (p < 0.001). Time‐related increases in total body fat were greater in African‐American women (p < 0.01). VAT was significantly higher in white women at baseline (p < 0.01) and increased significantly over time in both races (p < 0.01), but remained higher in white women (p < 0.001). Increases in VAT, relative to total body fat, were greater than the increases in total body fat over time, independent of age and race (p < 0.001). Discussion: Gaining total body‐fat mass results in a higher increase in VAT, relative to total body fat, regardless of race and age, although African‐American women maintain a lower VAT levels across time.     

四眼斑水龟个体大小和体形的两性异形

研究龟鳖的两性异形对理解形态适应具有重要意义。通过测量41只(21♀,20♂)成体四眼斑水龟(Sacalia quadriocellata)的20个形态特征指标,研究四眼斑水龟个体大小和体形的两性异形。结果表明:除头长、头宽、尾长和尾长肛前段长外,四眼斑水龟其他的形态特征均与背甲长呈正相关。雌性的背甲长、腹甲长、腹甲中线长、腹甲曲线长显著大于雄性;雄性的头长、头宽、后肢长、尾长和尾长肛前段长显著大于雌性;雌雄两性的体重、体周长、前肢长、腹甲宽、肛盾切口长、肛盾切口宽以及除背甲长外的所有背甲形态特征指标均无显著差异。研究结果表明,四眼斑水龟存在个体大小和体形两性异形。     

Localization of nucleic acids in the nucleoli of oocytes and early embryos of mouse and hamster: An autoradiographic study

Mouse preovulatory oocytes, zygotes, parthenogenetically activated pronuclear oocytes, and early embryos, as well as hamster zygotes, were analyzed, by autoradiography, for the distribution of either “maternal” or newly synthesized RNAs. Early mouse embryos were also examined for the distribution of newly replicated DNA. Special attention was attributed to NLBs in oocytes or to NPBs in early embryos. In mouse oocytes, [5-³H]uridine radioactivity accumulated (after a 2-hr pulse) in vitro, in addition to other nuclear compartments, in the central compact material of the NLBs. There was no cytoplasmic labeling. In all parthenogenetic pronuclear embryos developed from similarly labeled oocytes, this label was distinctly detectable in the central compact material of the NPBs; less intensive labeling was seen in the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. On the contrary, the central compact part of the mouse NPB did not show labeling in DNA after a continuous culture with [6-³H]thymidine. In mouse and hamster pronuclear zygotes, convincing evidence was obtained for a lack of any newly synthesized nucleic acids in the compact material of NPBs using 4- to 10-hr culture with [8-³H]adenosine. Based on these data, it was shown that the NLBs of oocytes or NPBs of early embryos probably contain RNAs synthesized during the last stages of antral follicle oocyte differentiation. This unique pathway of RNAs in the oocyte—embryo system may explain the specific morphology of both oocyte and early embryo “nucleoli.” © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Allometry of head and body size in Holocene foragers of the South African Cape

Opportunities to assess morphological allometry in small-bodied human populations are rare. The foragers of the Later Stone Age of the South African Cape are characteristically small-bodied. Previous studies have shown that during the period of ca. 3500 to 2000 years BP (uncalibrated (14) C dates), the regional population shows transient reduced stature, body mass, and cranial size, a pattern that has been tentatively tied to demographic pressure on resources. This study examines the relationships among cranial size (centroid size) and body size (femoral length, femoral head diameter, and bi-iliac breadth) during the second half of the Holocene (N = 62). Reduced major axis regression indicates negative allometry of cranial centroid size with body size. Residuals (from ordinary least squares regression of cranial centroid size on body size) are regressed on radiocarbon date to examine temporal changes in the relationship between cranial and body size. Cranial and pelvic sizes are most conserved through time, while more ancient skeletons possess shorter femora and smaller femoral heads. The relationship between cranial centroid size and femoral length shows larger and more variable residuals at more recent dates, indicating a greater or more variable disassociation between cranial size and stature relative to more ancient skeletons. A similar, but nonsignificant relationship exists between cranial size and bi-iliac breadth. These results provide insights into the use of aspects of body size and proportionality in the assessment of health in past populations.     

人工育幼豚鹿幼仔的生长发育规律初步研究

测定了成都动物园圈养种群中9只人工育幼豚鹿幼仔(2004～2007年)体重和8只豚鹿的体尺,并观察了8只豚鹿的牙齿(0～63 d)的生长情况.结果为:幼仔在0～54 d内体长、肩高、后足长、耳长和尾长以及体重都随日龄呈直线增长趋势,其中体长和肩高与幼仔的日龄显著相关(P<0.01).初生幼仔齿式2(I 0/2, C 0/0, P 0/0),2周龄齿式2(I 0/2,C 0/0, P 2/2),7周龄齿式2(I 0/2,C 0/2或C 1/2, P 2/2).     

Effect of Scalp and Facial Hair on Air Displacement Plethysmography Estimates of Percentage of Body Fat

Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the effect of body hair (scalp and facial) on air displacement plethysmography (BOD POD) estimates of percentage of body fat. Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 25 men (31.4 ± 8.0 years, 83.4 ± 12.2 kg, 181.8 ± 6.9 cm) agreed to grow a beard for 3 weeks to participate in the study. Total body density (g/cm³) and percentage of body fat were evaluated by BOD POD. To observe the effect of trapped isothermal air in body hair, BOD POD measures were performed in four conditions: criterion method (the beard was shaven and a swimcap was worn), facial hair and swimcap, facial hair and no swimcap, and no facial hair and no swimcap_. Results: The presence of only a beard (facial hair and swimcap) resulted in a significant underestimation of percentage of body fat (16.2%, 1.0618 g/cm³) vs. the criterion method (17.1%, 1.0597 g/cm³, p < 0.001). The effect of scalp hair (no swim cap worn) resulted in a significant underestimation in percentage of body fat relative to the criterion method, either with facial hair (facial hair and no swimcap; 14.8%, 1.0649 g/cm³) or without facial hair (no facial hair and no swimcap; 14.8%, 1.0650 g/cm³, p < 0.001 for both). Discussion: A significant underestimation of percentage of body fat was observed with the presence of facial hair (～1%) and scalp hair (～2.3%). This underestimation in percentage of body fat may be caused by the effect of trapped isothermal air in body hair on body‐volume estimates. Thus, excess facial hair should be kept to a minimum and a swimcap should be worn at all times to ensure accurate estimates of body fat when using the BOD POD.     

Size‐dependent predation risk partly explains the sex‐related marking polymorphism in the sexually size‐dimorphic pygmy grasshopper Tetrix japonica

The sexually size‐dimorphic grasshopper Tetrix japonica exhibits variation in body‐color markings on the pronotum even within a single local population. Such markings have been suggested to reduce the visual detectability of grasshoppers. However, some grasshoppers have no markings. In the present study, we examined the effect of the sex‐related difference in body size and the spotted markings on the degree of camouflage. We hypothesized that: (i) large individuals (females) are potentially more readily detectable than small individuals; (ii) large individuals (females) with spotted markings would realize a moderate degree of the camouflage effect, whereas large individuals (females) without spotted markings would be quite poorly camouflaged; (iii) small individuals (males) would be sufficiently less detectable, with or without markings; and (iv) large individuals (females) would tend to have spotted markings in the wild. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a morph‐frequency field survey and laboratory experiments on the body‐size dependency of the spotted markings. The field survey confirmed that all females exhibited spotted markings and that the majority of males were non‐spotted morphs. Next, to determine whether body size and the spotted markings affected crypsis, we conducted detection task experiments using humans as dummy predators by manipulating the body size, presence/absence of spotted markings, or both, of printed grasshoppers. The absence of spotted markings increased the detection risk in large and small grasshoppers, particularly in large‐sized females. These results suggest that female‐biased selective predation could have eliminated non‐spotted female morphs because they were too conspicuous.     

Evolution of the central complex in the arthropod brain with respect to the visual system

Modular midline neuropils, termed arcuate body (Chelicerata, Onychophora) or central body (Myriapoda, Crustacea, Insecta), are a prominent feature of the arthropod brain. In insects and crayfish, the central body is connected to a second midline-spanning neuropil, the protocerebral bridge. Both structures are collectively termed central complex. While some investigators have assumed that central and arcuate bodies are homologous, others have questioned this view. Stimulated by recent evidence for a role of the central complex in polarization vision and object recognition, the architectures of midline neuropils and their associations with the visual system were compared across panarthropods. In chelicerates and onychophorans, second-order neuropils subserving the median eyes are associated with the arcuate body. The central complex of decapods and insects, instead, receives indirect input from the lateral (compound) eye visual system, and connections with median eye (ocellar) projections are present. Together with other characters these data are consistent with a common origin of arcuate bodies and central complexes from an ancestral modular midline neuropil but, depending on the choice of characters, the protocerebral bridge or the central body shows closer affinity with the arcuate body. A possible common role of midline neuropils in azimuth-dependent sensory and motor tasks is discussed.     

Impact of 2H and 18O Pool Size Determinations on the Calculation of Total Energy Expenditure

Measurement of total energy expenditure using [²H,¹⁸O]water requires both accurate and precise determination of the rates of disappearance of ²H and ¹⁸O from body water over time and determination of the ²H and ¹⁸O pool sizes. However, the impact of the isotopic determination of body water upon the determination of energy expenditure is often overlooked. For measurement of total body water per se, the delay after administration before sampling body fluids becomes important, and saliva sampling can be used to resolve the timing of early samples for body water determination. For energy expenditure measurement per se, linear regression can be used to define the initial dilution. Because the hydrogen tracer dilutes into a pool significantly larger than body water pool per se due to the presence of labile hydrogens, a correction to the isotope pool size must be applied. The theoretical calculations of the exchangeable hydrogen pool presented here suggest that the hydrogen pool size is <3% greater than the body water pool and data are provided to support this idea. Finally, the two approaches used to define the body water pool space contribution to the calculation of energy expenditure using ²H₂¹⁸O are reviewed. Using a pool size based upon the average of the two pool spaces limits the effect of pool size error in the calculation of energy expenditure.     

Intraspecific variation in ejaculate traits of the northern watersnake (Nerodia sipedon)

Sperm competition occurs when the sperm of more than one male compete to fertilize the eggs of a female. In reptiles, sperm competition is particularly prevalent and is an important agent of sexual selection in males. Spermatogenesis in reptiles can be energetically expensive, suggesting that there may be costs to producing high-quality ejaculates. The northern watersnake Nerodia sipedon has a mating system characterized by aggregations in which a single female mates with multiple males, resulting in high levels of multiple paternities. Under these circumstances sperm competition is likely important, and selection should favour sperm and ejaculate traits that enhance a male's reproductive success. In this study, we examined intraspecific variation in ejaculate quality (sperm length, motility, sperm density, spermactocrit) in male watersnakes and determined whether ejaculate traits varied with body size and condition, using both size-corrected mass and haematocrit as indices of condition. We found large variation among males in all these traits, except for sperm length. Although there was significant variation in sperm length among males, the majority of variation in sperm length occurred within rather than among individuals. Males with high haematocrit had sperm that were less variable with respect to length, and large males produced ejaculates that were less concentrated with respect to sperm than small males. The lack of condition dependence of most ejaculate traits is consistent with previous studies that indicate that male reproductive effort in this species is generally not energy limited, perhaps because of opportunistic foraging during the mating season.