Marine, intertidal, freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity of an isolated polar archipelago

Aim We ask how biodiverse is a polar archipelago; how this faunal richness is spread across marine, intertidal, freshwater, terrestrial and parasitic realms; and how fast species are accumulated with increased sampling effort. Location The South Orkney Islands (SOI), Scotia Arc, Southern Ocean. Methods We sampled mega‐ and macro‐benthos at the SOI using scuba in the shallows (0–10 m), a rough bottom otter trawl at 150–250 m and an Agassiz trawl and epibenthic sledge, both at depths of 200, 500, 1000 and 1500 m. We also collated species occurrence at the SOI in each realm from a century of literature and modern databases to investigate patterns in species accumulation, endemism, faunistic affinities and bathymetric ranges in three model taxa. Results Our 11 benthic samples showed that point biodiversity at the SOI is high, yielding 19 classes and 158 species. Nearly a third were new to the area, whilst five species and one genus were new to science. The shallowest samples were richest but had fewest new records of species. Known richness at the SOI is dominated by marine species (1026), of which 821 (83.3%) were benthic. Across all realms, 1224 species (50 classes, 24 phyla) were recorded, of which 43 were intertidal, 64 freshwater, 100 terrestrial, 60 parasitic and 40 birds. Species accumulation curves for model taxa showed new sampling yields about 0.75% per sample of known benthic richness, so by Antarctic standards we know the SOI quite well. Most species are Southern Ocean endemics, but very few occur only at the SOI. Main conclusions This first estimate of faunal biodiversity of a polar locality demonstrates both high richness and high levels of knowledge at the SOI. As suspected but never quantified, the benthos dominates polar biodiversity, at least at the SOI. Marine species there constitute 20% of those recently listed for the entire Southern Ocean, whilst > 60% of terrestrial species are known from Antarctica. The SOI, being one of the better‐studied polar locations, of known age and with a discrete shelf, represent an important source of comparison for biodiversity studies. Our data clearly show that richness and our knowledge of the polar fauna differ across environments.     

Collembola of sub-Antarctic South Georgia

Qualitative samples of Collembola were obtained from a range of substrates near Husvik, Stromness Bay, South Georgia, between January and March 1996. Collections made at Hope Point near Grytviken (Cumberland East Bay) in 1980/1982 and 1997 were also examined. Fifteen species of Collembola were recorded around Husvik; most were widely distributed. Two of these, Friesia sp. nov. and Cryptopygus badasa, represent additions to the previously recognised fauna of 17 species. A new record of an introduced species, Hypogastrura purpurescens, was identified in collections from Hope Point in 1980/1982, bringing the total South Georgian fauna to 20 species. A key to South Georgian Collembola is included. H. purpurescens and the congeneric Hypogastrura viatica, both cosmopolitan invasive species, have also been recognised on other sub-Antarctic islands and have displaced resident species from some habitats. Their presence on South Georgia, and the dominance of H. viatica in some habitats, highlight the importance of strict quarantine measures to avoid the introduction of further alien invertebrates. Accepted: 30 November 1998     

Antarctic reptant decapods: more than a myth?

The impoverished Antarctic decapod fauna is one of the most conspicuous biodiversity phenomena in polar science. Although physiological and ecological approaches have tried to explain the reason for the low decapod biodiversity pattern in the Southern Ocean, the complexity of this problem is still not completely understood. The scant records of crabs south of the Polar Front were always considered as exceptional, and have mostly been ignored by marine biologists world-wide, creating one of the most dogmatic paradigms in polar science. We herein review the record of both adults and larvae of reptants from the Southern Ocean. At present, several species of only lithodid crabs maintain considerable adult populations in circum-Antarctic waters, although they remain absent from the high-Antarctic shelves.     

Geographic isolation and physiological mechanisms underpinning species distributions at the range limit hotspot of South Georgia

In order to allocate quotas for sustainable harvests, that account for climate warming, it is important to incorporate species vulnerabilities that will underlie likely changes in population dynamics. Hotspots, regions with rapidly changing climate, are important locations for rapid advances in mechanistic understanding of the factors driving these changes, particularly if they coincide with regions with a high incidence of range limits, such as the sub-Antarctic Island of South Georgia. This archipelago is at the Northern limit of the Southern Ocean and therefore the northern distribution limit for many Southern Ocean shallow water marine species, which are amongst the most sensitive fauna to increasing temperature. At range limits species may either be living close to their physiological limits, or they may have more resistant phenotypes. In case studies, the northern range limit population of the gastropod limpet, Nacella concinna, has greater physiological plasticity at South Georgia than those from further south, allowing them to cope better with the warmer and more variable seasonal temperatures. Bivalve species, however, alter their depth distributions at South Georgia, to avoid the warmer water masses, indicating that they may not be able to cope with the warmer temperatures. Mackerel icefish, Champsocephalus gunnari, has a unique Antarctic trait, the loss of haemoglobin. A combination of temperature driven change in food web structure, and this extreme physiological cold adaptation, may explain why rapid warming at its northern range limit of South Georgia, has prevented stocks fully recovering from over fishing in the 1980s, despite highly conservative management strategies.     

Scotia Arc Acari: antiquity and origin

The Scotia Arc comprises South Georgia, South Sandwich, South Orkney and South Shetland Islands together with the Antarctic Peninsula. Free-living Acari of the Scotia Arc contain immigrant and endemic elements. Transport of immigrant species to and within the Maritime Antarctic has been via Holocene storms and ocean currents. Most immigrants are Gamasida, Oribatida and Acaridida while Actinedida dominate the endemic element. Immigrant species on South Georgia share common 'sub-Antarctic' affinities with South Indian and, to a lesser extent, South Pacific Ocean island faunas. In contrast, immigrants to the rest of the Scotia Arc and Bouvetøya on the mid-Atlantic Ridge, form a robust 'Maritime Antarctic' Province group. The endemic component is of largely Tertiary origin and, like that of Continental Antarctica, dominated by a few cosmopolitan families and genera of Actinedida. There are no bona fide pan-Antarctic species and little evidence that Continental and Maritime Antarctic faunas have a common ancestry, indeed the Continental endemic fauna is entirely montane while that of Maritime Antarctica is coastal. The presence of common Maritime Antarctic/South Pacific island genera corroborate the Antarctic Peninsula as being derived from a South Pacific island archipelago which collided with Continental Antarctica during the Tertiary period.     

Marine Biodiversity in Japanese Waters

To understand marine biodiversity in Japanese waters, we have compiled information on the marine biota in Japanese waters, including the number of described species (species richness), the history of marine biology research in Japan, the state of knowledge, the number of endemic species, the number of identified but undescribed species, the number of known introduced species, and the number of taxonomic experts and identification guides, with consideration of the general ocean environmental background, such as the physical and geological settings. A total of 33,629 species have been reported to occur in Japanese waters. The state of knowledge was extremely variable, with taxa containing many inconspicuous, smaller species tending to be less well known. The total number of identified but undescribed species was at least 121,913. The total number of described species combined with the number of identified but undescribed species reached 155,542. This is the best estimate of the total number of species in Japanese waters and indicates that more than 70% of Japan''s marine biodiversity remains un-described. The number of species reported as introduced into Japanese waters was 39. This is the first attempt to estimate species richness for all marine species in Japanese waters. Although its marine biota can be considered relatively well known, at least within the Asian-Pacific region, considering the vast number of different marine environments such as coral reefs, ocean trenches, ice-bound waters, methane seeps, and hydrothermal vents, much work remains to be done. We expect global change to have a tremendous impact on marine biodiversity and ecosystems. Japan is in a particularly suitable geographic situation and has a lot of facilities for conducting marine science research. Japan has an important responsibility to contribute to our understanding of life in the oceans.     

Diversity and distribution patterns in high southern latitude sponges

Sponges play a key role in Antarctic marine benthic community structure and dynamics and are often a dominant component of many Southern Ocean benthic communities. Understanding the drivers of sponge distribution in Antarctica enables us to understand many of general benthic biodiversity patterns in the region. The sponges of the Antarctic and neighbouring oceanographic regions were assessed for species richness and biogeographic patterns using over 8,800 distribution records. Species-rich regions include the Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands, South Georgia, Eastern Weddell Sea, Kerguelen Plateau, Falkland Islands and north New Zealand. Sampling intensity varied greatly within the study area, with sampling hotspots found at the Antarctic Peninsula, South Georgia, north New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego, with limited sampling in the Bellingshausen and Amundsen seas in the Southern Ocean. In contrast to previous studies we found that eurybathy and circumpolar distributions are important but not dominant characteristics in Antarctic sponges. Overall Antarctic sponge species endemism is ～43%, with a higher level for the class Hexactinellida (68%). Endemism levels are lower than previous estimates, but still indicate the importance of the Polar Front in isolating the Southern Ocean fauna. Nineteen distinct sponge distribution patterns were found, ranging from regional endemics to cosmopolitan species. A single, distinct Antarctic demosponge fauna is found to encompass all areas within the Polar Front, and the sub-Antarctic regions of the Kerguelen Plateau and Macquarie Island. Biogeographical analyses indicate stronger faunal links between Antarctica and South America, with little evidence of links between Antarctica and South Africa, Southern Australia or New Zealand. We conclude that the biogeographic and species distribution patterns observed are largely driven by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the timing of past continent connectivity.     

Biodiversity and biogeography pattern of benthic communities in the coastal basins of India

Our understanding of coastal biogeography patterns is presently limited to certain regions and marine groups. Comprehending large-scale patterns and their underlying predictors is critical due to the changing environmental conditions. The Indian coast, bounded by two contrasting seas, the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, offers an excellent opportunity to determine the most important factors influencing coastal biogeography patterns. Here we use distribution data of 2581 species belonging to three benthic groups (polychaetes, gastropods and bivalves) to evaluate the role of environmental factors and coastal currents on the biogeography patterns. Data were obtained from the bioSearch database, developed by CSIR-NIO, Goa under the Census of Marine Life programme. As measures of diversity, we used species richness as well as taxonomic distinctiveness indices. Multivariate analyses were used in identifying biodiversity patterns and correlated biogeography patterns with environmental factors. This paper points out a clear difference between the eastern and western basins of India, but also within the basins. Mainland and island fauna also showed a clear distinction. The biogeography of the Indian coast is best explained by temperature, habitat heterogeneity and coastline length. Spatiotemporal variability in the boundary currents also forms an effective barrier for the dispersal of planktonic larvae of benthic fauna. This study has identified a finer scale division of the Indian coast that can help to effectively improve conservation plans. Our study is the first to attempt to understand the benthic biogeography patterns of the Indian coast. The findings will be useful in guiding future biogeography studies of this unique and underexplored marine system.     

Stable isotope evidence of diverse species-specific and individual wintering strategies in seabirds

Although there is increasing evidence that climatic variations during the non-breeding season shape population dynamics of seabirds, most aspects of their winter distribution and ecology remain essentially unknown. We used stable isotope signatures in feathers to infer and compare the moulting (wintering) habitat of subantarctic petrels breeding at two distant localities (South Georgia and Kerguelen). Petrels showed species-specific wintering habitat preferences, with a similar pattern of latitudinal segregation for all but one taxon. At both localities, delta13C values indicated that blue petrels (Halobaena caerulea) moult in Antarctic waters, South Georgian diving petrels (Pelecanoides georgicus) in the vicinity of the archipelagos and/or in the Polar Frontal Zone and Antarctic prions (Pachyptila desolata) in warmer waters. In contrast, common diving petrels (Pelecanoides urinatrix) showed divergent strategies, with low and high intrapopulation variation at South Georgia and Kerguelen, respectively. Birds from Kerguelen dispersed over a much wider range of habitats, from coastal to oceanic waters and from Antarctica to the subtropics, whereas those from South Georgia wintered mainly in waters around the archipelago. This study is the first to show such striking between-population heterogeneity in individual wintering strategies, which could have important implications for likely demographic responses to environmental perturbation.     

The amphibians and reptiles of Luzon Island,Philippines, VIII: the herpetofauna of Cagayan and Isabela Provinces,northern Sierra Madre Mountain Range

We provide the first report on the herpetological biodiversity (amphibians and reptiles) of the northern Sierra Madre Mountain Range (Cagayan and Isabela provinces), northeast Luzon Island, Philippines. New data from extensive previously unpublished surveys in the Municipalities of Gonzaga, Gattaran, Lasam, Santa Ana, and Baggao (Cagayan Province), as well as fieldwork in the Municipalities of Cabagan, San Mariano, and Palanan (Isabela Province), combined with all available historical museum records, suggest this region is quite diverse. Our new data indicate that at least 101 species are present (29 amphibians, 30 lizards, 35 snakes, two freshwater turtles, three marine turtles, and two crocodilians) and now represented with well-documented records and/or voucher specimens, confirmed in institutional biodiversity repositories. A high percentage of Philippine endemic species constitute the local fauna (approximately 70%). The results of this and other recent studies signify that the herpetological diversity of the northern Philippines is far more diverse than previously imagined. Thirty-eight percent of our recorded species are associated with unresolved taxonomic issues (suspected new species or species complexes in need of taxonomic partitioning). This suggests that despite past and present efforts to comprehensively characterize the fauna, the herpetological biodiversity of the northern Philippines is still substantially underestimated and warranting of further study.     

Brittle stars from Southern Ocean (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)

The present biogeographic study on the ophiuroid fauna from the Southern Ocean (SO) contains an updated checklist, based on a compilation of all the published information provided for the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions as well as the information available in SCAR-MarBIN database. Faunal composition and geographical and bathymetric distribution are included. So far, 219 species have been recorded, of which 126 are endemic to the SO, 76 are exclusive to Antarctic waters, and 30 are exclusive to sub-Antarctic waters. This study corroborated the circumpolar and eurybathic character of the ophiuroid fauna of the SO, but some differences are discussed when considering shelf and deep-sea fauna in the whole SO, or in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions separately. The biogeographic affinities of 17 areas considered in the SO are revised, based on a presence/absence datamatrix of the 219 species. This similarity analysis shows three main groups, two of them including sub-Antarctic areas and one for Antarctic areas. The faunal movement patterns between the main geographical connections have been based on historical site records of each species. These movements have a level of faunal exchange that exceeds that of other Antarctic benthic groups. Such movements are mainly from Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions to the subtropical waters of South America, and from New Zealand and southern Australian waters to sub-Antarctic areas. In this context, the origin of the ophiuroid Antarctic fauna is discussed.     

Status of Marine Biodiversity of the China Seas

China''s seas cover nearly 5 million square kilometers extending from the tropical to the temperate climate zones and bordering on 32,000 km of coastline, including islands. Comprehensive systematic study of the marine biodiversity within this region began in the early 1950s with the establishment of the Qingdao Marine Biological Laboratory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Since that time scientists have carried out intensive multidisciplinary research on marine life in the China seas and have recorded 22,629 species belonging to 46 phyla. The marine flora and fauna of the China seas are characterized by high biodiversity, including tropical and subtropical elements of the Indo-West Pacific warm-water fauna in the South and East China seas, and temperate elements of North Pacific temperate fauna mainly in the Yellow Sea. The southern South China Sea fauna is characterized by typical tropical elements paralleled with the Philippine-New Guinea-Indonesia Coral triangle typical tropical faunal center.This paper summarizes advances in studies of marine biodiversity in China''s seas and discusses current research mainly on characteristics and changes in marine biodiversity, including the monitoring, assessment, and conservation of endangered species and particularly the strengthening of effective management. Studies of (1) a tidal flat in a semi-enclosed embayment, (2) the impact of global climate change on a cold-water ecosystem, (3) coral reefs of Hainan Island and Xisha-Nansha atolls, (4) mangrove forests of the South China Sea, (5) a threatened seagrass field, and (6) an example of stock enhancement practices of the Chinese shrimp fishery are briefly introduced. Besides the overexploitation of living resources (more than 12.4 million tons yielded in 2007), the major threat to the biodiversity of the China seas is environmental deterioration (pollution, coastal construction), particularly in the brackish waters of estuarine environments, which are characterized by high productivity and represent spawning and nursery areas for several economically important species. In the long term, climate change is also a major threat. Finally, challenges in marine biodiversity studies are briefly discussed along with suggestions to strengthen the field. Since 2004, China has participated in the Census of Marine Life, through which advances in the study of zooplankton and zoobenthos biodiversity were finally summarized.     

Intertidal colonization rates. A matched latitude, north v. south, remote v. near shore island experiment

Colonization of artificial substrata was monitored on sheltered rocky shores at Husvik, South Georgia (54° 11'S; 36° 40'W) and Cumbrae, Scotland (55° 46'N; 4° 55'W) from mid summer to early autumn. South Georgia is a remote island (1,330 km from other land); Cumbrae is only 2 km from nearby coasts. Both islands were heavily glaciated for a period up to about 10,000 ybp, so the intertidal fauna is of geologically recent origin. The South Georgian fauna is depauperate and consists mainly of direct developers; that of Cumbrae is rich and largely larviparous. Colonization rates at Cumbrae were one to four orders of magnitude greater than at Husvik. It is suggested that the fauna of South Georgian shores stems from colonization by rafting from remote sources, while Cumbrae has been supplied predominantly by short-range pelagic larval dispersal. The measured differences in colonization rates reflect the substantial local advantage of larval dispersal over direct development in established communities.     

Filling biodiversity gaps: benthic hydroids from the Bellingshausen Sea (Antarctica)

The Bellingshausen Sea constitutes the third largest sea in the Southern Ocean, though it is widely recognized as one of the less-studied Antarctic areas. To reduce this lack of knowledge, a survey to study the biodiversity of its marine benthic communities was carried out during the Bentart 2003 and Bentart 2006 Spanish Antarctic expeditions. The study of the hydroid collection has provided 27 species, belonging to ten families and 15 genera. Twenty-one out of the 27 species constitute new records for the Bellingshausen Sea, raising the total number of known species to 37, as also do nine out of the 15 genera. Candelabrum penola, Lafoea annulata, and Staurotheca juncea are recorded for the second time. Most species belong to Leptothecata. Sertulariidae with 13 species (48%) is by far the most speciose family, and Symplectoscyphus with seven species (26%), including S. bellingshauseni sp. nov. and S. hesperides sp. nov., the most diverse genus. Considering the whole benthic hydroid fauna of the Bellingshausen Sea, 18 species (69%) are endemic to Antarctic waters, either with a circum-Antarctic (12 species, 46%) or West Antarctic (6 species, 23%) distribution, 23 (88%) are restricted to Antarctic or Antarctic/sub-Antarctic waters, and only three species have a wider distribution. Bellingshausen Sea hydroid fauna is composed of a relatively high diversity of typical representatives of the Antarctic benthic hydroid fauna, though with a surprisingly low representation of some of the most diverse and widespread Antarctic genera (Oswaldella and Schizotricha), what could be related to the fact that its shelf-inhabiting hydroid fauna remains practically unknown.     

Revision of the coral genus Acropora (Scleractinia: Astrocoeniina: Acroporidae) in Indonesia

The coral genus Acropora is reviewed from Indonesia for the first time, following detailed collections made at 131 sites and additional material collected from approximately 40 sites throughout the archipelago during the period 1993–6. Eighty-three species are recorded, four of these ( Acropora halmaherae, A. awi, A. plumosa and A. simplex ) new to science, six first described in 1994 and six in 1997. Records are compared with specimen-based records from localities worldwide. The species of Acrokora occurring in Indonesian waters include five recorded only from the Indian Ocean and Indonesia, seven recorded only from the Pacific Ocean, South China Sea and Indonesia, and a further 10 species apparently endemic to Indonesia, as well as widespread Indo-Pacific species. Two species ( A. jacquelineae Wallace, 1994 and A. batunai Wallace, 1996) are recorded only from north central Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, and two species ( A. russelli Wallace, 1994 and A. turaki Wallace, 1994) only from north central Indonesia and north western Australia. The findings contribute to a new view of the corals of the Indo-Pacific 'centre of diversity' as a composite fauna with origins in a number of events in space and time.     

Debris accumulation on oceanic island shores of the Scotia Arc, Antarctica

The oceanic islands in the Southern Ocean can be considered amongst the remotest shores as, not only are they uninhabited (except for small research stations) and geographically isolated, but they are also enclosed by the oceanographic barrier of the Polar Frontal Zone. We survey island shores in the Scotia Arc mountain chain linking Antarctica to South America, including South Georgia, the South Sandwich archipelago and Adelaide Island off the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, and compare our findings to literature reports from two other Scotia Arc island groups (South Orkney and South Shetland archipelagos). The presence of marine pollution (in the form of beached debris) in this region is significant, both as a measure of man's influence on this isolated environment, and due to direct dangers posed to the fauna. This paper reports the results of surveys of beached marine debris at various times in the last decade for each island group. The majority (>70%) of the items recovered were anthropogenic in origin and most of these were synthetic (plastic or polystyrene). Debris densities varied from zero to 0.3 items m^-1 but were typically lower than those reported from other regions of the globe. At some localities (South Georgia), marine-debris data showed a close relationship with local fishery activity, whilst at others (South Sandwich Islands) debris appeared to have a more distant origin. Unlike oceanic debris in warm (non-polar) water localities, there was no evidence of any colonisation by biota. Debris accumulation may provide a useful indirect measure of local fishery activity and compliance with CCAMLR regulations, as well as monitoring the state of the oceans and island shores.     

Comparative biocenological analysis of Gastropoda on the Macedonian part of Lake Ohrid and its watershed

Lake Ohrid represents a refugial ecosystem which harbors a great number of endemic and relics living forms. Though the whole Lake’s fauna characterizes high biodiversity and endemism, this is most obvious in the class of Gastropoda. Unlike the Lake, the fauna of the adjacent waters fairly differs from the Lake’s fauna, i.e., it is poorer both in term of diversity and endemism. The main goal of our study was to perform comparative biocenological researches on the gastropod fauna from Lake Ohrid and the adjacent waters in the watershed of the Lake. Based on the results we have obtained, it could be clearly noted that different habitats are characterized with different qualitative composition of the gastropod fauna not only when compared the gastropod settlement between the Lake and its surrounding waters, but also in the Lake for itself. Total of 50 species of gastropods have been recorded in the littoral regions of the lake and its coastal waters during 2009/2010. They belong to subclass Orthogastropoda (50 taxa). 21 species out of 50 are recorded in the adjacent waters: 13 of them settle both the adjacent waters and the Lake, while 8 strictly inhabit the adjacent waters. In terms of endemism, 17 are endemic and 4 cosmopolitan. The remainig 29 (out of 50 recorded) settle up only the littoral zone of the Lake: 25 are endemic and 4 are cosmopolitan. The percentage of endemism based on the recorded species for the class Gastropoda is 84%.     

Marine shelf habitat: biogeography and evolution

We synthesize the evolutionary implications of recent advances in the fields of phylogeography, biogeography and palaeogeography for shallow‐water marine species, focusing on marine speciation and the relationships among the biogeographic regions and provinces of the world. A recent revision of biogeographic provinces has resulted in the recognition of several new provinces and a re‐evaluation of provincial relationships. These changes, and the information that led to them, make possible a clarification of distributional dynamics and evolutionary consequences. Most of the new conclusions pertain to biodiversity hotspots in the tropical Atlantic, tropical Indo‐West Pacific, cold‐temperate North Pacific, and the cold Southern Ocean. The emphasis is on the fish fauna, although comparative information on invertebrates is utilized when possible. Although marine biogeographic provinces are characterized by endemism and thus demonstrate evolutionary innovation, dominant species appear to arise within smaller centres of high species diversity and maximum interspecies competition. Species continually disperse from such centres of origin and are readily accommodated in less diverse areas. Thus, the diversity centres increase or maintain species diversity within their areas of influence, and are part of a global system responsible for the maintenance of biodiversity over much of the marine world.     

Marine biodiversity in the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of South America: knowledge and gaps

The marine areas of South America (SA) include almost 30,000 km of coastline and encompass three different oceanic domains--the Caribbean, the Pacific, and the Atlantic--ranging in latitude from 12°N to 55°S. The 10 countries that border these coasts have different research capabilities and taxonomic traditions that affect taxonomic knowledge. This paper analyzes the status of knowledge of marine biodiversity in five subregions along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of South America (SA): the Tropical East Pacific, the Humboldt Current,the Patagonian Shelf, the Brazilian Shelves, and the Tropical West Atlantic, and it provides a review of ecosystem threats and regional marine conservation strategies. South American marine biodiversity is least well known in the tropical subregions (with the exception of Costa Rica and Panama). Differences in total biodiversity were observed between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans at the same latitude. In the north of the continent, the Tropical East Pacific is richer in species than the Tropical West Atlantic, however, when standardized by coastal length, there is very little difference among them. In the south, the Humboldt Current system is much richer than the Patagonian Shelf. An analysis of endemism shows that 75% of the species are reported within only one of the SA regions, while about 22% of the species of SA are not reported elsewhere in the world. National and regional initiatives focusing on new exploration, especially to unknown areas and ecosystems, as well as collaboration among countries are fundamental to achieving the goal of completing inventories of species diversity and distribution.These inventories will allow accurate interpretation of the biogeography of its two oceanic coasts and latitudinal trends,and will also provide relevant information for science based policies.