Life history strategies and psychopathology: the faster the life strategies,the more symptoms of psychopathology

There is little extant empirical literature examining the associations between life history strategies and symptoms of psychopathology. The current study (N = 138) investigated the associations between life history strategies, symptoms of psychopathology, aggression, incidence of self-harm behaviour, and attachment (perceived parental support) in sample drawn from the general population and community mental health service providers. The results from the study indicate those with a faster life strategy report greater levels of aggression and symptoms of psychopathology. Further, perceptions of poorer parental support were associated with a faster life history strategy. Implications for life history theory, conceptualising psychopathology, and future research directions are discussed.     

Mental Misrepresentation in Non-human Psychopathology

In this paper, we defend a representational approach to at least some kinds of non-human psychopathology. Mentally-ill non-human minds, in particular in delusions, obsessive-compulsive disorders and similar cognitive states, are traditionally understood in purely behavioral terms. In contrast, we argue that non-human mental psychopathology should be at least sometimes not only ascribed contentful mental representation but also understood as really having these states. To defend this view, we appeal to the interactivist account of mental representation, which is a kind of a constructive approach to meaning. We follow Mark Bickhard in assuming that only an organism – either human or non-human – capable of detecting its own misrepresentations is representational. However, under his autonomy-based account of biological function these minds are incapable of misrepresentations because these minds are, ex hypothesi, unable to detect error in such representations. To solve this problem, we argue that adding a historical dimension – as in Millikan’s view on mental representations – to Bickhard’s account of function makes mental misrepresentation of mentally-ill minds possible. Using Bickhard’s dynamic account of function, it is possible to explain why delusions and other mental disorders can be seen as locally functional. However, an etiological dimension can further explain why misrepresentations seem to be globally dysfunctional. Even if representational or biosemiotic hypotheses about non-human psychopathology are difficult to confirm empirically, we defend the view that they can enrich our understanding of the causes and development of such pathologies, and may constitute a new progressive research programme.     

A network theory of mental disorders

In recent years, the network approach to psychopathology has been advanced as an alternative way of conceptualizing mental disorders. In this approach, mental disorders arise from direct interactions between symptoms. Although the network approach has led to many novel methodologies and substantive applications, it has not yet been fully articulated as a scientific theory of mental disorders. The present paper aims to develop such a theory, by postulating a limited set of theoretical principles regarding the structure and dynamics of symptom networks. At the heart of the theory lies the notion that symptoms of psychopathology are causally connected through myriads of biological, psychological and societal mechanisms. If these causal relations are sufficiently strong, symptoms can generate a level of feedback that renders them self‐sustaining. In this case, the network can get stuck in a disorder state. The network theory holds that this is a general feature of mental disorders, which can therefore be understood as alternative stable states of strongly connected symptom networks. This idea naturally leads to a comprehensive model of psychopathology, encompassing a common explanatory model for mental disorders, as well as novel definitions of associated concepts such as mental health, resilience, vulnerability and liability. In addition, the network theory has direct implications for how to understand diagnosis and treatment, and suggests a clear agenda for future research in psychiatry and associated disciplines.     

The evolved developmental niche in childhood: Relation to adult psychopathology and morality

Following prior work linking childhood experience to adult outcomes, we used an evolutionary framework to examine effects of childhood experience on adult psychopathology and morality. Every animal provides an early life developmental system, developmental manifold or “niche” for its young, a set of inherited extra-genetic characteristics that match up with the maturational schedule of the offspring to optimize development. Humans inherit a niche first shaped over 30 million years ago with the emergence of social mammals and modified through human evolution. The human “evolved developmental niche” (EDN) has been related to positive outcomes in young children. Using an adult sample (n = 606), we examined adult retrospective recollection of childhood EDN and its relation to attachment, psychopathology, sociomoral capacities, and ethical orientations. Significant direct and indirect effects were found through mediation models, with EDN predicting Social Engagement orientation through perspective taking, Social Opposition orientation through lack of perspective taking and Social Withdrawal orientation through personal distress.     

Attachment,Mothering and Mental Illness: Mother–Infant Therapy in an Institutional Context

This paper is an ethnographic exploration of how attachment theory underpins therapeutic practices in an Australian institutional context where mothers of infants have been diagnosed and are undergoing treatment for mental illness. We argue that attachment theory in this particular context rests on a series of principles or assumptions: that attachment theory is universally applicable; that attachment is dyadic and gendered; that there is an attachment template formed which can be transferred across generations and shapes future social interactions; that there is understood to be a mental health risk to the infant when attachment is characterised as problematic; and that this risk can be mitigated through the therapeutic practices advocated by the institution. Through an in-depth case study, this paper demonstrates how these assumptions cohere in practice and are used to assess mothering as deficient, to choose therapeutic options, to shape women’s behaviour, and to formulate decisions about child placement.     

Psychological Mechanisms Predicting Wellbeing in Pet Owners: Rogers’ Core Conditions versus Bowlby’s Attachment

While pet ownership may confer physical and psychological health benefits, existing research presents inconsistent findings, and the psychological mechanisms through which health benefits might be conferred are unknown. Exploring human–pet relationships from the perspectives of Bowlby’s attachment theory, namely “attachment-related anxiety” and “attachment-related avoidance,” and Rogers’ core conditions including “unconditional positive regard” and “empathy” may highlight the psychological mechanisms involved. This study compared quality of life (QOL) and psychopathology in pet owners with those without pets. In the pet owners, we additionally assessed pet attachment, and perceived empathy, unconditionality, and congruence in the human–pet relationships. We then compared the relative value of Bowlby’s attachment versus Rogers’ core conditions in human– pet relationships as predictors of wellbeing in pet owners. Overall, pet owners and non-pet owners did not significantly differ in terms of QOL or psychopathology. However, in pet owners, secure pet attachments were associated with lower psychological distress and psychopathology, and those perceiving higher levels of Rogers’ core conditions from their pets had higher QOL. Bowlby’s pet attachment insecurity predicted psychological distress and psychopathology, while Rogers’ total core conditions in pets were significantly predictive of QOL of owners. Differences in wellbeing may not be reliably discernable between pet owners and non-pet owners, as wellbeing is related not to pet ownership alone but to qualities of individual human–pet relationships. The results provide new information about psychological mechanisms through which human–pet interactions are conferred, and support for the applicability of both Bowlby’s and Rogers’ concepts.     

Social cognition and psychopathology: a critical overview

The philosophical and interdisciplinary debate about the nature of social cognition, and the processes involved, has important implications for psychiatry. On one account, mindreading depends on making theoretical inferences about another person''s mental states based on knowledge of folk psychology, the so-called “theory theory” (TT). On a different account, “simulation theory” (ST), mindreading depends on simulating the other''s mental states within one''s own mental or motor system. A third approach, “interaction theory” (IT), looks to embodied processes (involving movement, gesture, facial expression, vocal intonation, etc.) and the dynamics of intersubjective interactions (joint attention, joint action, and processes not confined to an individual system) in highly contextualized situations to explain social cognition, and disruptions of these processes in some psychopathological conditions. In this paper, we present a brief summary of these three theoretical frameworks (TT, ST, IT). We then focus on impaired social abilities in autism and schizophrenia from the perspective of the three approaches. We discuss the limitations of such approaches in the scientific studies of these and other pathologies, and we close with a short reflection on the future of the field. In this regard we argue that, to the extent that TT, ST and IT offer explanations that capture different (limited) aspects of social cognition, a pluralist approach might be best.     

Individual attachment style modulates human amygdala and striatum activation during social appraisal

Adult attachment style refers to individual personality traits that strongly influence emotional bonds and reactions to social partners. Behavioral research has shown that adult attachment style reflects profound differences in sensitivity to social signals of support or conflict, but the neural substrates underlying such differences remain unsettled. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we examined how the three classic prototypes of attachment style (secure, avoidant, anxious) modulate brain responses to facial expressions conveying either positive or negative feedback about task performance (either supportive or hostile) in a social game context. Activation of striatum and ventral tegmental area was enhanced to positive feedback signaled by a smiling face, but this was reduced in participants with avoidant attachment, indicating relative impassiveness to social reward. Conversely, a left amygdala response was evoked by angry faces associated with negative feedback, and correlated positively with anxious attachment, suggesting an increased sensitivity to social punishment. Secure attachment showed mirror effects in striatum and amygdala, but no other specific correlate. These results reveal a critical role for brain systems implicated in reward and threat processing in the biological underpinnings of adult attachment style, and provide new support to psychological models that have postulated two separate affective dimensions to explain these individual differences, centered on the ventral striatum and amygdala circuits, respectively. These findings also demonstrate that brain responses to face expressions are not driven by facial features alone but determined by the personal significance of expressions in current social context. By linking fundamental psychosocial dimensions of adult attachment with brain function, our results do not only corroborate their biological bases but also help understand their impact on behavior.     

The Schreber case revisited: schizophrenia as a disorder of self-regulation and of interactional regulation

The Schreber case has been used by generations of psychoanalysts and psychiatrists to exemplify many features of the psychoanalytic conception of psychosis. It has generally been considered the origin of a great debate in psychoanalysis as to whether schizophrenia is a disorder of nature or of nurture. I seek in this contribution to proffer a newer theory of psychopathology, one which is based upon the conception of primary and secondary disorders of attachment (bonding) and which presents itself clinically as disorders of self-regulation and of interactional regulation. I attempt to explicate this theory in the Schreber case by demonstrating that his symptoms revealed: (a) failures of normal mental state regulations, (b) the emergence of symptoms which then secondarily and pathologically restore regulation in a pathological manner, and finally (c) his/her very symptoms seem to regulate a state in the family system and/or in the system of the culture at large.     

Mental status of females with an FMR1 gene full mutation.

The cloning of the FMR1 gene enables molecular diagnosis in patients and in carriers (male and female) of this X-linked mental retardation disorder. Unlike most X-linked disorders, a considerable proportion of the female carriers of a full mutation of the FMR1 gene is affected. In this study, the intelligence quotients (IQs) were ascertained by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale in 33 adult females with a full mutation, with 28 first-degree adult female relatives (mainly sisters) without a full mutation as controls. Seventy-one percent of the females with a full mutation had IQ scores below 85. In paired analysis, no significant correlation could be detected between the IQs of the females with a full mutation and those of their first-degree female relatives, reflecting a dominant effect of the FMR1 gene full mutation in the mental development of females. Considering females with a full mutation only, we observed a significant relation between the proportion of normal FMR1 alleles on the active X chromosome and IQ. We present a model to explain this relationship.     

Development and Validation of a Set of German Stimulus- and Target Words for an Attachment Related Semantic Priming Paradigm

Experimental research in adult attachment theory is faced with the challenge to adequately activate the adult attachment system. In view of the multitude of methods employed for this purpose so far, this paper suggests to further make use of the methodological advantages of semantic priming. In order to enable the use of such a paradigm in a German speaking context, a set of German words belonging to the semantic categories ‘interpersonal closeness’, ‘interpersonal distance’ and ‘neutral’ were identified and their semantics were validated combining production- and rating method. 164 university students answered corresponding online-questionnaires. Ratings were analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and cluster analysis from which three clearly distinct groups emerged. Beyond providing validated stimulus- and target words which can be used to activate the adult attachment system in a semantic priming paradigm, the results of this study point at important links between attachment and stress which call for further investigation in the future.     

Why mental disorders are just mental dysfunctions (and nothing more): some Darwinian arguments

Mental disorders are often thought to be harmful dysfunctions. Jerome Wakefield has argued that such dysfunctions should be understood as failures of naturally selected functions. This suggests, implicitly, that evolutionary biology and other Darwinian disciplines hold important information for anyone working on answering the philosophical question, 'what is a mental disorder?'. In this article, the author argues that Darwinian theory is not only relevant to the understanding of the disrupted functions, but it also sheds light on the disruption itself, as well as on the harm that attends the disruption. The arguments advanced here are partially based on the view that a core feature of Darwinism is that it stresses the environmental relativity of functions and dysfunctions. These arguments show a very close empirical connection between social judgments (values) and dysfunctions (psychopathology), which is of interest for psychiatric theory. Philosophically, they lead to the conclusion that the concept of mental disorder is identical to the concept of mental dysfunction. Consequently, it is both misleading and redundant to conceptualize mental disorders as 'harmful dysfunctions', and not simply as 'mental dysfunctions'.     

Associations between Parent-Adolescent Attachment Relationship Quality,Negative Life Events and Mental Health

Purpose

The aim of this study was to examine the association of negative life events and parent-adolescent attachment relationship quality with mental health problems and to explore an interaction between the parent-adolescent attachment relationship and one or multiple negative life events on the mental health of adolescents.

Methods

A two-year longitudinal study was conducted among first-year secondary school students (N = 3181). The occurrence of life events and the quality of parent-adolescent attachment were assessed at baseline and mental health status at two-year follow-up by means of self-report questionnaires. Binary logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess associations between life events, parent-adolescent attachment and mental health problems. Relative Excess Risk due to Interaction techniques were used to determine the interaction effects on the additive scale.

Results

Life events were related to mental health status, as was parent-adolescent attachment. The combined effect of an unfavourable parent-adolescent attachment with life events on mental health was larger than the sum of the two individual effects. Among adolescents with one life event or multiple life events, an unfavourable parent-adolescent attachment increased the risk of mental health problems at follow-up compared to the group without life events.

Conclusion

Results supported an interaction effect between parent-adolescent attachment and negative life events on mental health. Especially adolescents with one or multiple life events and an unfavourable parent-adolescent attachment seems to be a vulnerable group for mental health problems. Implications for further research are discussed.     

Perceived Social Support Moderates the Link between Attachment Anxiety and Health Outcomes

Two literatures have explored some of the effects intimate relationships can have on physical and mental health outcomes. Research investigating health through the lens of attachment theory has demonstrated that more anxiously attached individuals in particular consistently report poorer health. Separate research on perceived social support (e.g., partner or spousal support) suggests that higher support has salutary influences on various health outcomes. Little to no research, however, has explored the interaction of attachment anxiety and perceived social support on health outcomes. The present study examined the attachment-health link and the moderating role of perceived social support in a community sample of married couples. Results revealed that more anxious persons reported poorer overall physical and mental health, more bodily pain, more medical symptoms, and impaired daily functioning, even after controlling for age, relationship length, neuroticism, and marital quality. Additionally, perceived social support interacted with attachment anxiety to influence health; more anxious individuals'' health was poorer even when perceived social support was high, whereas less anxious individuals'' health benefited from high support. Possible mechanisms underlying these findings and the importance of considering attachment anxiety in future studies of poor health in adulthood are discussed.     

Quantification of acid-base interactions based on contact angle measurement allows XDLVO predictions to attachment of Campylobacter jejuni but not Salmonella

Acid-base (AB) interactions play the most important role in bacterial attachment to surfaces and can be quantified based on electron donor/electron acceptor data from contact angle measurement (CAM) according to the extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (XDLVO) theory. It follows that the XDLVO theory could fail to explain attachment numbers if differences in AB interactions between strains are not apparent by CAM. This study aimed to investigate the validity of the above assumptions by comparing empirical data on attachment of six bacterial strains (three strains of Campylobacter jejuni and three strains of Salmonella) to stainless steel and XDLVO theory predictions. A significant difference (P < 0.05) in AB interactions, apparent by CAM, between C. jejuni strains allowed prediction of attachment of this species by the XDLVO theory. However, the theory failed to explain the attachment numbers for Salmonella due to similar AB interactions, as established by CAM, between the three Salmonella strains. Qualitative analysis of AB interactions by microbial adhesion to solvents (MATS) revealed a significant difference (P < 0.05) in electron donor property between the three Salmonella strains suggesting that these strains may differ with respect to AB interactions. No significant correlation with respect to electron donor property (P = 0.502, r² = 12%) was apparent between CAM and MATS. These data suggest that CAM may not always reflect exactly AB interactions and that the difference in the outcomes from MATS and CAM should be considered when the XDLVO theory is used to predict bacterial attachment to surfaces.     

Understanding Genital-Shrinking Epidemics in West Africa: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Koro</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Juju</Emphasis>, or Mass Psychogenic Illness?

A small-scale epidemic of genital shrinking occurred in six West African nations between January 1997 and October 2003. This article presents a summary and analysis of 56 media reports of these cases. A clinical formulation of these cases considers a variety of explanations from theory and research in social and cultural psychology, psychopathology, and anthropology. Of particular interest is a comparison of genital-shrinking distress in West African settings with koro, a culture-bound syndrome involving fears of genital retraction that is prominent in Southeast Asian settings. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the role of culture in both the experience of genital-shrinking distress and conceptions of psychopathology.     

‘Can he have the test for bipolar,doctor? His dad's got it’: exploring the potential of general practitioners to work with children and young people presenting in primary care with common mental health problems – a clinical initiative

Background General practitioners (GPs) play a key role in assessing and managing adult mental health problems, but this input is not seen in their management of child and adolescent mental health. Mental health problems in 5–19-year-olds are common, yet detection rates in primary care are low. The symptoms of most adult diagnoses of mental health problems are present by mid-adolescence, yet the typical time from onset to diagnosis is 5–15 years. The role of general practice in this area has been underexplored.Aim This pilot study explores the potential of GPs to respond to common mental health problems in children and adolescents.Design Children and young people who would have ordinarily been referred to Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) were seen in a GP setting. In a UK general practice surgery serving a disadvantaged population.Method Children and young people were seen for an initial biopsychosocial assessment and formulation of the presenting concerns. GP-based interventions were offered as appropriate or referred to CAMHS.Results Data from the first 50 children (2–19 years) are presented. Twenty younger children (10 years and under) and 30 older children (11 years and above) were seen. Eighteen referrals were made to CAMHS. GP interventions included watchful waiting, brief behavioural interventions, non-directive counselling, brief cognitive– behavioural therapy (CBT) and liaison with colleagues in education, CAMHS and the voluntary sector.Conclusion This clinical pilot demonstrates that with adequate time, access to supervision and practice support, children and young people experiencing emotional and behavioural problems associated with common mental health issues can be helped in primary care.     

Gender differences in self- and investigator-rated psychopathology in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Despite the growing interest in the diagnosis of ADHD in adults, most of the knowledge in ADHD still relies on research with children and adolescents. Gender differences in adult ADHD patients were neglected for a long time and only few studies have focused this topic. The goal of this study was to investigate differences in ADHD psychopathology in male and female adults. We examined gender differences in ADHD core and associated symptoms and in personality traits in adults with ADHD. In order to discriminate between general and ADHD-specific gender differences, we compared data of adult ADHD patients with two control groups (patients with substance abuse and healthy controls). Regarding differences in ADHD core symptoms-attention problems, hyperactivity, and impulsivity-between male and female subjects, we found inconsistent results depending on the applied diagnostic instruments. Using standardized self-report, there were no gender differences regarding attention problems and hyperactivity but regarding impulsivity. Results of a semi-standardized interview (WRAADDS) according to the Utah criteria of adult ADHD showed no gender differences regarding impulsivity and hyperactivity but regarding attention problems. Moreover, differences were found between female and male healthy controls in the domains "over reactivity" and "hot temper" but not in the group of ADHD patients. Thus, it seems that gender differences in normal population were leveled by the disorder. Concerning general personality traits, some differences between male and female ADHD patients were also present in healthy controls, suggesting no ADHD-specific effect of gender. In conclusion, male and female ADHD patients seem to be more similar than different regarding ADHD-related psychopathology and general personality traits.     

Using Attachment Theory and Social Support Theory to Examine and Measure Pets as Sources of Social Support and Attachment Figures

Companion animals are increasingly being recognized by society as beneficial to our health and considered by many owners as authentic and affectional family members. Human relationship theories help us to understand the emotional and supportive aspect of the human– companion animal bond. This study uses attachment theory, social support theory, and the concept of the hierarchical nature of attachment relationships to further understand and measure human–animal attachment. In study 1,161 university-student pet owners completed a modified multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS) that included pets as a source of support, and we pre-tested a 60-item pet attachment measure. Results showed that students perceived their pets as distinctive sources of social support, at similar levels to their significant others, family, and friends. Principal components analysis of the 60-item measure reduced it to 31 items, and revealed four pet attachment components: (a) Proximity maintenance and interaction, (b) Emotional attachment behaviors, (c) Emotional support given and received, and (d) Emotional and monetary value. The scale was named the Emotional and Supportive Attachment to Companion Animals Scale (ESACA) (Cronbach’s α = 0.96). In study 2, 83 university students completed an attachment hierarchy scale and the ESACA. Companion animals were included in pet owners’ attachment hierarchies and ranked higher than siblings but lower than romantic partners, parents, and close friends. Those who indicated higher attachment to their companion animals ranked them higher in their attachment hierarchy than those less attached. This study supports and extends previous research that has used aspects of attachment theory and social support theory when exploring the human–animal bond. Many companion animal owners perceive their pets as additional sources of emotional support, fulfilling the four features of an attachment relationship and including them in their hierarchy of important attachment relationships.     

The impact of ADHD on morality development

Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is one of the most commonly diagnosed childhood mental disorders. This pervasive disorder can affect all aspects of the child’s life, including, but not limited to: peer relations, adult relations and intellectual development. As a direct result of ADHD, many of these deficiencies pervade through the child’s life into adulthood. Although there is a growing number of literature focusing on the sequela of ADHD, especially social deviance, most of the literature’s scope is limited to the connection between ADHD and criminality. This finite perspective provides little insight into the developmental characteristics which actually link ADHD to criminality. The most glaring example of an obscured developmental link is that of moral judgment. The following is an attempt to draw a meaningful connection between deficient moral development and ADHD, especially as it relates to attachment theory. Connecting previous research relevant to the topic as well as time-tested psychological theories on morality and attachment will serve to validate this claim.