Landscape Genetics for the Empirical Assessment of Resistance Surfaces: The European Pine Marten (Martes martes) as a Target-Species of a Regional Ecological Network

Coherent ecological networks (EN) composed of core areas linked by ecological corridors are being developed worldwide with the goal of promoting landscape connectivity and biodiversity conservation. However, empirical assessment of the performance of EN designs is critical to evaluate the utility of these networks to mitigate effects of habitat loss and fragmentation. Landscape genetics provides a particularly valuable framework to address the question of functional connectivity by providing a direct means to investigate the effects of landscape structure on gene flow. The goals of this study are (1) to evaluate the landscape features that drive gene flow of an EN target species (European pine marten), and (2) evaluate the optimality of a regional EN design in providing connectivity for this species within the Basque Country (North Spain). Using partial Mantel tests in a reciprocal causal modeling framework we competed 59 alternative models, including isolation by distance and the regional EN. Our analysis indicated that the regional EN was among the most supported resistance models for the pine marten, but was not the best supported model. Gene flow of pine marten in northern Spain is facilitated by natural vegetation, and is resisted by anthropogenic landcover types and roads. Our results suggest that the regional EN design being implemented in the Basque Country will effectively facilitate gene flow of forest dwelling species at regional scale.     

Questioning the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 Special Areas of Conservation strategy: the case of Crete

Aim This study examines the effectiveness of the selected ‘network’ of Natura 2000 Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) at a regional scale in Greece, in terms of its representativeness of plant biodiversity. Location The island of Crete is used as a case study because it is considered to be one of the 10 hotspots for biodiversity in the Mediterranean Basin. Methods Hotspot analysis and complementarity algorithms are used to define priority areas for conservation and calculate their spatial overlap with the Natura 2000 SACs in Crete. Results The various categories of hotspots contain subsamples of plant categories, used for their definition. Spatial overlap among different categories of hotspots, areas of complementary diversity and Natura 2000 SCAs is low. Main conclusions The results show that the Natura 2000 SACs ‘network’ in Crete seems insufficient to ensure satisfactory representation of the regional plant biodiversity elements.     

Spatial indicators for nature conservation from European to local scale

The paper presents an overview of the objectives and exemplary results of the FP 5 project “Spatial Indicators for European Nature Conservation” (SPIN). The SPIN project is focused on the development and testing of advanced classification methods and spatial indicators based on multisensor satellite data and GIS to accomplish monitoring and management tasks in the context of Natura 2000 and nature conservation. A representative selection of eight regional test areas covers a pan-European network and allows comparative investigations to provide accepted recommendations for regional and European nature conservation. The selected results of four case studies are presented and discussed. The range of work covers the production of regional and local habitat maps by object-oriented classification, a case-based reasoning method for change detection as a management support tool for planning and regulating local land use, the selection and application of structural indicators for the monitoring of Natura 2000 habitats and the downscaling and disaggregation of soil information. Results and the further implementation of presented methods are discussed in the conclusions.     

Effectiveness of a large reserve network in protecting freshwater biodiversity: a test for the Iberian Peninsula

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呼包鄂榆城市群耦合空间碳排放生态网络构建

构建生态网络是维持景观连通性、提升包括固碳在内的生态系统服务功能的重要手段。为了更好地响应固碳增汇目标及其政策要求,有必要将空间碳排放因素纳入区域生态网络分析框架。选择高能耗、高碳排且生态脆弱的呼包鄂榆城市群作为研究区,采用生态系统服务和连通性分析识别生态源地,并结合电路理论和重力模型提取生态廊道,得到区域景观生态格局;通过获取夜间灯光数据模拟得到城市群栅格尺度碳排放空间格局,并与景观生态格局进行空间叠加,以此补充“生态-碳排”耦合节点和规划廊道,进而构建考虑区域碳排放空间格局的城市群生态网络。结果表明：1)仅考虑生态因素构建的区域生态网络东西两侧生态源地连通性不足,网络呈“中部阻断型”分布;2)区域碳排放存在明显空间特征,高值区出现在人为生态扰动显著的中部矿产资源开发区和主要城镇地区;3)通过耦合区域碳排放格局,补充了23个“生态-碳排”耦合节点和67条规划廊道,生态网络结构由树状转变为蜂巢状,网络闭合度、线点率和连接度分别提升了92%、30.48%和27.45%。因此,通过耦合空间碳排放因素改进的生态网络构建方法,对于提高生态网络的多功能性和稳定性,以及促进以增加碳汇能力为目标的生...     

Species,Habitats, Society: An Evaluation of Research Supporting EU's Natura 2000 Network

The Natura 2000 network is regarded as one of the conservation success stories in the global effort to protect biodiversity. However, significant challenges remain in Natura 2000 implementation, owing to its rapid expansion, and lack of a coherent vision for its future. Scientific research is critical for identifying conservation priorities, setting management goals, and reconciling biodiversity protection and society in the complex political European landscape. Thus, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive evaluation of published Natura 2000 research to highlight prevalent research themes, disciplinary approaches, and spatial entities. We conducted a systematic review of 572 scientific articles and conference proceedings focused on Natura 2000 research, published between 1996 and 2014. We grouped these articles into ‘ecological’ and ‘social and policy’ categories. Using a novel application of network analysis of article keywords, we found that Natura 2000 research forms a cohesive small-world network, owing to the emphasis on ecological research (79% of studies, with a strong focus on spatial conservation planning), and the underrepresentation of studies addressing ‘social and policy’ issues (typically focused on environmental impact assessment, multi-level governance, agri-environment policy, and ecosystem services valuation). ‘Ecological’ and ‘social and policy’ research shared only general concepts (e.g., Natura 2000, Habitats Directive) suggesting a disconnection between these disciplines. The UK and the Mediterranean basin countries dominated Natura 2000 research, and there was a weak correlation between number of studies and proportion of national territory protected. Approximately 40% of ‘social and policy’ research and 26% of ‘ecological’ studies highlighted negative implications of Natura 2000, while 21% of studies found positive social and biodiversity effects. We emphasize the need for designing inter- and transdisciplinary research in order to promote a social-ecological understanding of Natura 2000, and advance EU conservation policies.     

Climate change threatens European conservation areas

Europe has the world's most extensive network of conservation areas. Conservation areas are selected without taking into account the effects of climate change. How effectively would such areas conserve biodiversity under climate change? We assess the effectiveness of protected areas and the Natura 2000 network in conserving a large proportion of European plant and terrestrial vertebrate species under climate change. We found that by 2080, 58?±?2.6% of the species would lose suitable climate in protected areas, whereas losses affected 63?±?2.1% of the species of European concern occurring in Natura 2000 areas. Protected areas are expected to retain climatic suitability for species better than unprotected areas (P?相似文献   

Evaluating the Connectivity of a Protected Areas' Network under the Prism of Global Change: The Efficiency of the European Natura 2000 Network for Four Birds of Prey

Climate and land use changes are major threats to biodiversity. To preserve biodiversity, networks of protected areas have been established worldwide, like the Natura 2000 network across the European Union (EU). Currently, this reserve network consists of more than 26000 sites covering more than 17% of EU terrestrial territory. Its efficiency to mitigate the detrimental effects of land use and climate change remains an open research question. Here, we examined the potential current and future geographical ranges of four birds of prey under scenarios of both land use and climate changes. By using graph theory, we examined how the current Natura 2000 network will perform in regard to the conservation of these species. This approach determines the importance of a site in regard to the total network and its connectivity. We found that sites becoming unsuitable due to climate change are not a random sample of the network, but are less connected and contribute less to the overall connectivity than the average site and thus their loss does not disrupt the full network. Hence, the connectivity of the remaining network changed only slightly from present day conditions. Our findings highlight the need to establish species-specific management plans with flexible conservation strategies ensuring protection under potential future range expansions. Aquila pomarina is predicted to disappear from the southern part of its range and to become restricted to northeastern Europe. Gyps fulvus, Aquila chrysaetos, and Neophron percnopterus are predicted to locally lose some suitable sites; hence, some isolated small populations may become extinct. However, their geographical range and metapopulation structure will remain relatively unaffected throughout Europe. These species would benefit more from an improved habitat quality and management of the existing network of protected areas than from increased connectivity or assisted migration.     

生态红线划分的理论和技术

在重要生态功能区、生态环境敏感区/脆弱区等区域划定生态红线,控制人类活动强度,对于维护区域生态完整性和生态服务功能的可持续性,解决生态环境退化和资源枯竭问题,减轻异常自然灾害不利影响具有重要意义.虽然不少省市已开展生态红线划分和管理试点工作,但生态红线划分的理论和技术尚不完善。生态红线区划和管理急需理论指导和技术支持。对生态红线的内涵进行了分析,指出了空间红线、面积红线和管理红线之间的有机联系,强调了生态安全空间格局和区域生态服务需求在生态红线划分中的重要性;在生态红线划分技术研究综述基础上剖析了生态红线的研究中存在的问题,如划分方法简单粗放、对景观和区域尺度上的空间过程和空间联系考虑不足以及由于部门和学科分割带来的(海)水陆缺乏统筹等;论述了生态适宜性评价、景观/区域安全格局理论、海陆统筹理论、干扰生态学理论、生态系统管理和适应性理论以及驱动力-压力-状态-影响-响应(DPSIR)模型框架等技术方法和理论以及它们在在生态红线划分中的潜在应用;最后提出了基于生态安全格局和区域生态服务需求的生态红线划分的技术路线,并对今后生态红线划分研究进行了展望。提出的生态红线划分技术和理论方法可为今后生态红线的研究提供有益参考。     

Environmental diagnosis: Integrating biodiversity conservation in management of Natura 2000 forest spaces

The conservation of biodiversity in Europe is defined by Directive 92/43/EEC – commonly known as the Habitats Directive – relating to the conservation of natural habitats and of wild flora and fauna. This Directive established the creation of an ecological network of European protected areas – the Natura 2000 network – , and also recognised the need to manage these areas to maintain their “favourable conservation status”.This paper proposes a methodology which enables the conservation of biodiversity to be integrated into the management of Natura 2000 forest spaces. The methodology comprises an “environmental diagnosis” in three phases. The first phase evaluates the current conservation status of habitats using the following criteria: vital functions; floristic richness; forest structure; area occupied by the habitat; and recovery capacity. The second phase assesses the fragility of the space to determine the degree of vulnerability of habitats. This involves evaluating the fire hazard, erosion hazard, and the fragility of the vegetation. The last phase combines the two previous ones to generate management areas (optimum, intermediate or unfavourable) and to prioritise management actions.This methodology was applied in a protected forest area in the Natura 2000 network, located in Avila (Spain). Different management areas were generated for biodiversity conservation, and each habitat was associated to one of them. Finally, actions were prioritised and designed to raise the habitats to a “favourable conservation status”.     

Identifying areas of high importance for orchid conservation in east Macedonia (NE Greece)

The establishment of a network of reserves is of fundamental importance to the loss of biodiversity. Seven different area selection methods for the establishment of a reserve network were applied in the present study: (a) 5% cut-off value of the grid cells with the highest species richness or conservation value, (b) complementarity analysis using as criteria species richness or conservation value or rarest species richness, and (c) mixed complementarity analysis using as criteria species richness or conservation value. These methods were applied in the orchid taxa of east Macedonia. The conservation values of taxa were estimated on the basis of regional rarity, broad-scale rarity, and species specialization. The spatial overlap between the resulting networks and the Natura 2000 network of the study area was assessed. Furthermore, the efficiency of the latter network to protect the orchid taxa of the study area was examined. Our results suggest that: (a) a multiscale estimation of rarity is necessary for the unbiased estimation of species conservation values; (b) species specialization adds valuable ecological information to the assessment of taxa conservation values; (c) complementarity and mixed complementarity analyses on species richness or conservation value safeguard all the taxa of the region; (d) complementarity analysis on the basis of the richness of the rarest species safeguards all the rarest taxa, but not the total number of the remaining taxa; (e) the 5% cut-off value on species richness or conservation value fails to protect all the taxa of the region, including a large number of the rarest taxa; and (f) the Natura 2000 network, despite its large coverage in the study area, fails to safeguard all the taxa, including some of the rarest.     

No Reef Is an Island: Integrating Coral Reef Connectivity Data into the Design of Regional-Scale Marine Protected Area Networks

We integrated coral reef connectivity data for the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico into a conservation decision-making framework for designing a regional scale marine protected area (MPA) network that provides insight into ecological and political contexts. We used an ocean circulation model and regional coral reef data to simulate eight spawning events from 2008–2011, applying a maximum 30-day pelagic larval duration and 20% mortality rate. Coral larval dispersal patterns were analyzed between coral reefs across jurisdictional marine zones to identify spatial relationships between larval sources and destinations within countries and territories across the region. We applied our results in Marxan, a conservation planning software tool, to identify a regional coral reef MPA network design that meets conservation goals, minimizes underlying threats, and maintains coral reef connectivity. Our results suggest that approximately 77% of coral reefs identified as having a high regional connectivity value are not included in the existing MPA network. This research is unique because we quantify and report coral larval connectivity data by marine ecoregions and Exclusive Economic Zones (EZZ) and use this information to identify gaps in the current Caribbean-wide MPA network by integrating asymmetric connectivity information in Marxan to design a regional MPA network that includes important reef network connections. The identification of important reef connectivity metrics guides the selection of priority conservation areas and supports resilience at the whole system level into the future.     

Bridging the gap between the Natura 2000 regional conservation status and local conservation objectives

Natura 2000 targets the sustainable conservation of Europe's biodiversity. An important cornerstone of Natura 2000 is the Habitats Directive, which is currently implemented across European member states. However, straightforward implementation is not obvious since the favourable conservation status of habitats and species needs to be achieved at the member state level, while conservation objectives need to be formulated at the protected site level. To bridge this gap, we propose to start from regional conservation objectives before site level objectives are formulated. These regional conservation objectives have the advantage of providing a framework according to which conservation objectives can be allocated both within and outside the protected sites of the Natura 2000 network. Especially since they all contribute to the national or regional conservation status. Recently, Flanders (northern Belgium) has adopted this approach and has quantified conservation objectives at the regional scale. As the current regional conservation status of habitats and species is mostly unfavourable, regional conservation objectives entail a drastic increase in area (42%) for habitats, and active conservation measures for 78% of the species. We are convinced that the method outlined here, may substantially contribute to a helpful discussion about implementing and streamlining Natura 2000 across European member states.     

Future land use effects on the connectivity of protected area networks in southeastern Spain

Land-use change is a major driver of the global biodiversity crisis, mainly via the fragmentation and loss of natural habitat. Although land-use changes will accelerate to meet humankind's growing demand for agricultural products, conservation planning rarely considers future land uses and how they may affect the connectivity of ecological networks. Here, we integrate land-use models with landscape fragmentation and connectivity analyses, to assess the effects of past and future land-use changes on the connectivity of protected area networks for a highly dynamic region in southeast Spain. Our results show a continued geographical polarisation of land use, with agricultural intensification and urban development in the coastal areas, and the abandonment of traditional land use in the mountains (e.g., 1100 km² of natural vegetation are projected to be lost in coastal areas whereas 32 km² of natural vegetation would recover in interior areas from 1991 to 2015). As a result, coastal protected areas will experience increasing isolation. The connectivity analyses reveal that the two protected area networks in place in the study area, the European “Natura 2000” and the Andalusian “RENPA” networks, include many landscape connectors. However, we identify two areas that currently lack protection but contain several important patches for maintaining the region's habitat connectivity: the northwestern and the southwestern slopes of the Sierra Cabrera and Bédar protected area. Our results highlight the importance of considering future land-use trajectories in conservation planning to maintain connectivity at the regional scale, and to improve the resilience of conservation networks.     

自然保护区生态安全设计的方法研究

由于生态破坏和自然栖息地的丧失,造成野生动植物种群的破碎化．自然保护区已成为孤立的生境岛屿,目前以单个、孤立保护区为主的生物多样性保护模式是远远不够的,应在广泛的时空尺度上保护生态过程和生物多样性各组成成份,建立一个整体的保护网络．根据国内外生物多样性保护的要求和发展趋势,提出了自然保护区生态安全设计的概念,它是综合考虑了生态、社会、经济的一种协调设计战略,首先从区域层次研究保护区网络的优化设计;其次,在网络的每个节点(保护区),研究保护区的面积、形状和内部功能分区;最后,研究网络与节点的连接(廊道)．自然保护区网络设计应维持生态系统的地域完整性和生态过程完整性,采用迭代法、整数规划方法和地理途径方法,为一个或多个保护目标勾画出多种保护规划蓝图。     

Selection and application of spatial indicators for nature conservation at different institutional levels

As European integration increasingly affects pan-European nature conservation, indicators for the assessment of habitats are urgently needed to support ecosystem integrity monitoring as well as the target of halting biodiversity loss by 2010. The Natura 2000 network of protected sites with a strong focus on the protection of habitat types and strict monitoring obligations is now legally binding for all Member States. From a set of indicators that have been proposed for habitat monitoring by the SPIN project (Spatial Indicators for European Nature Conservation) we describe measures of landscape structure and soil function and their potential for the monitoring and management of protected areas and the surrounding landscape. In a case study from Austria, we show that structure-related indicators hold potential for the documentation of local-scale changes on a degraded raised bog Natura 2000 site. In a regional scale case study in northern Germany, we show how landscape metrics relate agricultural statistics, e.g. farm size and livestock density to landscape structure. In a third case study from Slovenia, we show how coarse-scale soil data can be disaggregated to finer scale by integrating topographic information and additional parameters for modelling, and production of soil-related habitat suitability maps. From these case studies we provide an overview of some of the critical issues affecting the selection and application of spatial indicators for nature conservation monitoring tasks. End users of spatial indicators work at different scales and in different biogeographical regions. The indicator selection and application demonstrated in our three case studies reveals the capability to contribute to a more quantitative evidence base for monitoring and management of biodiversity in Europe.     

Potential loss of genetic variability despite well established network of reserves: the case of the Iberian endemic lizard <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lacerta schreiberi</Emphasis>

Although future anthropogenic climate change is recognized as one of the major threats to European species, its implementation during reserve planning has only been started recently. We here describe climate change impacts on the Iberian endemic lizard Lacerta schreiberi expecting serious declines and range reductions due to a loss of suitable climate space in the next future. We apply species distribution models to assess possible future changes in the lizard’s range, identify areas with high extinction risk meriting conservation efforts and analyze whether the Natura 2000 network in its current stage will offer a sufficient protection for the genetically most valuable lineages. Despite a very good coverage and connectivity of the most valuable populations of L. schreiberi with the existing protected sites network, our results predict a strong loss of genetic variability by 2080. Also, two main patterns become evident: While the genetically less diverse north-western populations may be less affected by climate change, the climate change effects on the southern isolates and the genetically most diverse populations within the Central System may be devastating. To improve a successful prospective conservation of L. schreiberi the management of protected sites needs to consider the processes that threaten this species. Furthermore, our study highlights the urgent need to consider climate change effects on evolutionary significant units within the Natura 2000 framework.     

Advances in orchid research in East Macedonia (NE Greece) and the importance of current data in furthering our understanding of the orchids’ altitudinal requirements

High-quality data on species distribution and knowledge of species ecology are necessary pre-requisites for their effective conservation. In the European Union, a network of protected areas called the “Natura 2000 network” was set up to conserve the most valuable and threatened species. The Natura 2000 network was supposed to improve rare species conservation, but has it? In this paper, an analysis of data collected from 1 × 1 km grids on the distribution of orchids in East Macedonia (NE Greece) in two consecutive periods of time (before and after 2010), revealed the degree to which a larger data set (including both periods instead of only one) improved our knowledge of the distributions of species and whether the Natura 2000 network can be used as a basis for the conservation of the orchid flora in this area. When the data for the first period and cumulative data for both periods were compared, orchid species richness and density were very similar. However, comparison of the two datasets showed that more orchid taxa were recorded per grid in the first than the second period. However, based on the surveys in the second period, the knowledge on orchid distribution increased significantly. In particular, ten orchid taxa were recorded for the first time in East Macedonia during the second period and significantly more (54.79 % of the total number of species) were recorded. This resulted in a better understanding of their altitudinal requirements. It also confirmed that most of the orchid-rich grid cells in East Macedonia overlap with the Natura 2000 network, which highlights importance of Natura 2000 for orchid conservation.     

Nature reserve group planning for conservation of giant pandas in North Minshan, China

Formation of nature reserve groups (NRGs) is an important approach for optimising spatial patterns in nature reserves and for improving the efficiency of nature reserve networks. In this study, based on habitat evaluation and connectivity analysis, the approach and method for optimising spatial patterns and functional zoning of reserves were analysed using the case study of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) reserves in North Minshan. Results indicated that five panda nature reserves had been established, which formed a reserve group and covered 48.4% of panda habitat and three of five population components. Although the nature reserves were connected to each other, core zones were divided into seven isolated areas. These divisions can reduce the efficiency of protecting giant pandas in reserve systems. To optimise spatial patterns in nature reserves, one new reserve is proposed and it is recommended that core zones be expanded and merged into two areas, in accordance with the spatial distribution of the panda population. Three linkage areas are also proposed—for facilitating panda exchange and movement among different populations. The study is expected to provide a scientific basis for planning the development of nature reserves in this mountain range, to promote the establishment of nature reserve groups in other areas, and to optimise entire nature reserve systems in China.     

区域自然保护区群规划——以秦岭山系为例

自然保护区群的构建对于优化我国自然保护区空间布局、提高自然保护区的保护效果具有重要意义。以大熊猫为主要研究对象,以秦岭山系为研究区域,以生境评价与通达性分析为主要研究方法,探讨了自然保护区群合理布局与功能区优化的程序、内容与方法。研究表明,目前秦岭山系已建与筹建的大熊猫自然保护区17个,自然保护区群初步形成,保护了50%的大熊猫生境,但东部的3个自然保护区尚未全部相连,且整个自然保护区核心区被隔离为20部分,大大影响了自然保护区效果的发挥。为优化自然保护区的布局,建议新建湑水河与锦鸡梁两个自然保护区,以大熊猫居群为基本单位将核心区调整为4个,并且通过3个连接区的建设加强各大熊猫居群的连通性,以促进大熊猫种群间的交流与迁徙。研究结果可为秦岭山系自然保护区建设提供思路与依据,对其它地区自然保护区群的建立及全国自然保护区网络的优化也具有借鉴意义。