Bioremediation of the organochlorine pesticides,dieldrin and endrin,and their occurrence in the environment

Dieldrin and endrin are persistent organic pollutants that cause serious environmental problems. Although these compounds have been prohibited over the past decades in most countries around the world, they are still routinely found in the environment, especially in the soil in agricultural fields. Bioremediation, including phytoremediation and rhizoremediation, is expected to be a useful cleanup method for this soil contamination. This review provides an overview of the environmental contamination by dieldrin and endrin, along with a summary of our current understanding and recent advances in bioremediation and phytoremediation of these pollutants. In particular, this review focuses on the types and abilities of plants and microorganisms available for accumulating and degrading dieldrin and endrin.     

THE USE OF ENDRIN AND OTHER INSECTICIDES AGAINST LETTUCE ROOT APHID, PEMPHIGUS BURSARIUS L

Several insecticides have been used as protectants against lettuce root aphid, including, in 1955, lindane, schradan, aldrin and endrin; the last-named giving the most promising results. With a dressing of an equal weight of 50% endrin dust added to lettuce seed, 86% reduction in aphid numbers was obtained. In 1957, a seed dressing with endrin also gave a good control, which was superior to that obtained with thimet 44D. However, in 1956 and 1958 endrin seed dressing failed to control the aphid. When a seed dressing with endrin was supplemented by an endrin spray applied to the seedlings a consistently good control resulted.
A high level of aphid control was obtained in 1958 with two sprays of diazinon applied along the lettuce rows, the first applied after singling and the other at the early rosette stage. Diazinon or endrin, applied to the soil at 4 lb. actual insecticide/acre and rotavated into the top 3 in. before sowing, also gave high levels of control.
No recommendations for the use of endrin on lettuce can be made until levels and persistence of residues are known.     

An in-use study of the relationship between bacterial contamination of food preparation surfaces and cleaning cloths

The relationship between bacterial contamination of food preparation surfaces and the cleaning cloths associated with these surfaces was investigated in a busy college kitchen. Cleaning cloths used in conjunction with detergent became heavily contaminated within hours of first use. Following 'cleaning' with these cloths with detergent, both surfaces and cloths were found to be more heavily contaminated and there was evidence of contamination transfer to and from cloths and surfaces. Following 'cleaning' with cloths impregnated with quaternary ammonium disinfectant, there was a significant reduction in contamination on both surfaces and cloths, together with a reduction in the numbers of enterobacteria and pseudomonads. The results suggest that significant improvements in kitchen hygiene could be achieved by ensuring that contaminated cloths are not used for food preparation activities.     

Biodegradation and bioconversion of endrin by white rot fungi,Phlebia acanthocystis and Phlebia brevispora

Endrin is persistent organic pollutants that contaminate soil in many parts of the world. In this study, endrin was used as the substrate for a degradation experiment with the white rot fungi of the genus Phlebia. The results of tolerance test showed that the tolerance level of Phlebia acanthocystis and Phlebia brevispora to endrin was higher than that of other fungi, and the tolerance coefficient of both strains to 1.0 mg/L endrin exceeded 0.9 in solid PDA medium. P. acanthocystis and P. brevispora could degrade endrin efficiently in pure culture, especially P. acanthocystis had the highest degradability of more than 80% after 20 d incubation. Compared with low-nitrogen medium, PDB medium is more suitable for the biodegradability of two fungi. Several hydroxylated products such as 8-hydroxyendrin and two monohydroxyendrin were detected, indicating that endrin was initially branched to different monohydroxylated products in fungal degradation. Moreover, a carboxylic acid product was obtained from P. acanthocystis culture, suggesting that the carboxylation reaction occurred in bioconversion of endrin. The fungal cytochrome P450 enzymes play significant role in the in the initial hydroxylation process on endrin degradation. This is the first report that endrin is converted to hydroxylated and carboxylated metabolites by microorganisms.     

The incidence and level of Listeria monocytogenes contamination of food sources at primary production and initial processing

Listeria monocytogenes was isolated in low numbers from a variety of environmental samples associated with the primary production of food, including vegetation, faeces and meat. The organism was rarely detected on growing grass and vegetables prior to processing. The excretion of L. monocytogenes by farm animals was linked to their diet, with animals fed entirely on hay or manufactured diets not excreting detectable levels of Listeria (i.e. absence in 25 g). However, animals fed on silage, which is frequently contaminated with L. monocytogenes , commonly excreted the organism. Transport of live animals over long distances (> 100 km) significantly increased the level of excretion of Listeria , but the contamination of carcasses of sheep and cattle was not high. Pigs and poultry faeces were free of Listeria prior to slaughter and pig carcasses were not found to have Listeria present. Frozen and chilled chicken did show detectable levels reflecting the greater potential for contamination during poultry processing. Samples of minced beef were tested and 21 of 23 samples were positive for L. monocytogenes , demonstrating that processing significantly increases the level of contamination compared to whole carcasses. Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis of a representative selection of the isolates showed that there was a wide range of electrophoretic types present in the primary production environment, relatively few of which have been linked to cases of human listeriosis. However, these types do arise on farms and occasional contamination of food raw material by potentially virulent strains may be sufficient to allow adaptable strains to become established in the processing environment and thus be responsible for more widespread contamination of the food available to the consumer.     

Isolation of dieldrin- and endrin-degrading bacteria using 1,2-epoxycyclohexane as a structural analog of both compounds

This report describes the selective isolation of dieldrin- and endrin-degrading bacteria from soil with high degradation activity toward dieldrin and endrin. Several enrichment cultures from the soil were arranged with several structural analogs of dieldrin and endrin as a growth substrate and examined for their degradation activities toward dieldrin and endrin. An enrichment culture with 1,2-epoxycyclohexane (ECH) was found to aerobically degrade dieldrin and endrin. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) indicated that three types of bacteria were predominant in the ECH enrichment culture. Of the three major bacteria, two isolates, Burkholderia sp. strain MED-7 and Cupriavidus sp. strain MED-5, showed high degradation activity toward dieldrin and endrin. The degradation efficiencies of strain MED-7 and MED-5 were 49% and 38% toward dieldrin, respectively, and 51% and 40% toward endrin, respectively, in the presence of ECH for 14 days. These results indicated that ECH was a useful substrate for selective and efficient isolation of dieldrin- and endrin-degrading bacteria from soil containing numerous bacteria. Interestingly, the two isolates could also degrade dieldrin and endrin even in the absence of ECH. These are the first microorganisms demonstrated to grow on dieldrin and endrin as the sole carbon and energy source under aerobic conditions.     

Block of an insect central nervous system GABA receptor by cyclodiene and cyclohexane insecticides

The effects of a cyclodiene (endrin) and a cyclohexane (lindane) insecticide have been tested on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors in the central nervous system of the cockroach (Periplaneta americana), by using electrophysiological methods and an in vitro functional receptor assay. In electrophysiological experiments on an identified motor neuron (Df), endrin blocked the GABA response with a 50% inhibition concentration of 5.0 x 10(-7) M in a non-competitive manner. The actions of endrin were irreversible under the experimental conditions adopted. Increasing the intracellular chloride concentration reduced the effectiveness of endrin, whereas a change in the potassium concentration failed to influence the block by endrin of GABA responses. Lindane exhibited similar actions to endrin on insect GABA receptors, but was approximately an order of magnitude less effective. In a microsac preparation from cockroach nerve cords, endrin, at a concentration of 1.0 x 10(-5) M, completely blocked GABA-stimulated 36Cl- uptake, whereas the same concentration of lindane was less potent, only blocking about 40% of uptake under similar conditions. Neither insecticide had any effect on L-glutamate-activated chloride channels. The results demonstrate that endrin and lindane block functional insect neuronal GABA receptors.     

Bone mineral density in residents living on radioactive territories of Cheliabinsk Region

Operation of "Mayak" plutonium production complex resulted in radioactive contamination of the part of Chelyabinsk Region in 1950-60s. Significant gas-aerosol emissions of 1311 occurred since 1948; in 1957, a radiation accident resulted in 90Sr contamination of large territories. This paper presents comparison of bone mineral density of persons lived on territories with different levels of soil 90Sr-contamination with a control group. It was found that in 1970-1975 the bone mineral density, estimated from mineral content in bone samples, in residents of contaminated areas born in 1936-1952 was significantly lower compared with the control group. For persons born in 1880-1935 such differences were not found. It was shown that the decrease in bone mineral density was not related to 90Sr exposure of osteogenic cells in the dose range from 0.1 to 1300 mGy: the coefficient of correlation between individual 90Sr-doses and bone mineral contents was not significant. The decrease in bone mineral density of persons born in 1936-1952 could be associated with exposure of thyroid and parathyroid glands (systemic regulators of calcium turnover) by 131I from gas-aerosol emissions from "Mayak". Maximum gas-aerosol emissions occurred in 1948-1954 and coincided with growth and development of thyroid gland, characterizing by intensive accumulation of 131I, and with growth and maturation of the skeleton of persons born in these calendar years.     

Removal of prioritary pesticides contamining r'mel ground water by using organic waste residues

This study evaluated pesticide contamination of R'mel ground water located in northwest Morocco. The study area is densely populated and thriving, with intensive agriculture. Various techniques, including stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) and gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy detection (GC-MS), were used for the quantitative determination of 13 pesticides including alachlor, aldrin, atrazine, chlorpyrifos, chlorfenvinphos, dieldrin, alpha-endosulfan, endrin, hexachlorobenzene, beta-HCH, gamma-HCH (lindane), simazine and trifluralin. The survey results showed that contamination by pesticide residues is widespread in the area. With the exception of atrazine, the average concentrations were all below the regulatory limits established by the European Union. The potential of ten natural organic substances to eliminate pesticides included in the European Water Framework Directive was evaluated. The absorbents with the highest removal efficiency were date and olives stones and, to a Lesser degree, Raphanus raphanistrum and Cistus ladaniferus. The adsorption tests gave very satisfying results and pointed to the possible application of these supports as ecoLogical remediation techniques to prevent pesticide pollution of aquatic ecosystems.     

Bone mineral density in residents of radioactive territories of Chelyabinsk Region

Operation of the Mayak plutonium production association resulted in radioactive contamination of a part of Chelyabinsk Region in the 1950–1960s. Significant gas-aerosol emission of ¹³¹I occurred since 1948; in 1957, a radiation accident resulted in ⁹⁰Sr contamination of large territories. This paper presents comparison of the bone mineral density of persons who lived on territories with different levels of ⁹⁰Sr-soil contamination with that of a control group. It was found that in 1970–1975, the bone mineral density, estimated from the mineral content in bone samples, in residents of contaminated areas born in 1936–1952 was significantly lower compared to the control group. For persons born in 1880–1935, such differences were not found. It was shown that the decrease in the bone mineral density was not related to ⁹⁰Sr exposure of osteogenic cells in the dose range from 0.1 to 1300 mGy: the coefficient of correlation between individual ⁹⁰Sr doses and bone mineral contents is not significant. The decrease in bone mineral density of persons born in 1936–1952 may be associated with exposure of the thyroid and parathyroid glands (systemic regulators of calcium metabolism) to ¹³¹I from gas-aerosol emissions from Mayak. The highest levels of gas-aerosol emissions occurred in 1948–1954 and coincided with the growth and development of the thyroid gland, characterized by intensive accumulation of ¹³¹I, and with the growth and maturation of the skeleton of persons born in the given calendar years.     

SEIZURE PROBLEMS IN 250 CEREBRAL PALSIED ADULTS

Seizures occurred at some time in 81 (or 32 per cent) of an unselected, consecutive series of 250 cerebral palsied persons between the ages of 16 and 52 years, an incidence similar to that reported by other investigators in groups of cerebral palsied persons who were mainly children.The incidence of seizures of any kind after 16 years of age in the present series was 10 per cent as compared with 0.5 per cent in the general population. Half of the 10 per cent had more than six convulsions despite drug therapy, and the other half had fewer than six.Of thirty-six who had convulsions in the neonatal period, only four had seizure problems as adults, even though most showed moderate to severe physical handicap after age 16.Data on the small group of paraplegics in the present study, all spastics, were in accord with reports by other investigators with regard to decreased incidence of seizures in cerebral palsied patients with normal upper extremities. Of the thirteen (5 per cent of the 250) whose seizure problems continued to be clinically significant in adult life, ten had had frequent seizures in childhood. Eight were hemiplegic. There appeared to be no relationship between the severity of physical handicap and the incidence of seizures after age 16.     

Protective effects of lazaroid U74389F (16-desmethyl tirilazad) on endrin-induced lipid peroxidation and DNA damage in brain and liver and regional distribution of catalase activity in rat brain

Endrin, a poly-halogenated cyclic hydrocarbon, induces hepatic lipid peroxidation, modulates calcium homeostasis, decreases membrane fluidity, and increases nuclear DNA damage. Little information is available on the neurotoxicity of endrin. The effects of endrin on lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and regional distribution of catalase activity were assessed in rat brain and liver 24 h following an acute oral dose of 4.5 mg endrin/kg. Lipid peroxidation associated with whole brain mitochondria increased 2.4-fold, whereas microsomal lipid peroxidation increased 2.8-fold following endrin administration. Lipid peroxidation also increased 2.0-fold both in hepatic mitochondria and microsomes. Catalase activity decreased 24% in the hypothalamus, 23% in the cortex, 38% in the cerebellum, and 11% in the brain stem in response to endrin. A 4.3-fold increase in brain nuclear DNA-single strand breaks (SSB) was observed in endrin-treated rats. Pretreatment of rats intraperitoneally with the lazaroid U74389F (16-desmethyl tirilazad) (10 mg/kg in two doses) attenuated the biochemical consequences of endrin-induced oxidative stress. The administration of U74389F in citrate buffer (pH 3.8) provided better protection than administering the lazaroid in corn oil, decreasing endrin-induced lipid peroxidation by 50–80% and DNA-SSB by approximately 72% in liver and 85% in brain, while ameliorating the suppressed catalase activity. The data suggest an involvement of an oxidative stress in the neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity induced by endrin, which can be attenuated by the lazaroid U74389F.     

Assessing and analysing contamination of a dairy products processing plant by Staphylococcus aureus using antibiotic resistance and PFGE

A dairy product processing plant was studied for 2.5 years to examine contamination with Staphylococcus aureus and try to correlate the source of contamination. Cultures were submitted to an antibiotic susceptibility test (AST) and characterised by Pulsed-field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis. Results showed that 35.2% (19/51) of food handlers were asymptomatic carriers of S. aureus, and that 90.4% (19/21) of raw milk sampled was contaminated. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from only 10 samples among more than 3200 investigated dairy products. No S. aureus contamination was found on machinery. The AST analysis demonstrated sensitivity of tested S. aureus to oxacillin, cephalothin, vancomycin, gentamicin, and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. AST analysis generated eight different phenotypic profiles, but did not allow us to identify the source of contamination in seven of ten final products. PFGE analysis proved to be a sensitive method as it generated 42 different DNA banding profiles among the 48 S. aureus investigated, demonstrating a lack of predominance of endemic strains in the plant, contrary to suggestions raised by antibiotic resistance typing. Based on PFGE genotyping, S. aureus strains isolated from four contaminated final products were similar to four S. aureus isolated from raw milk. Five final products contained S. aureus different from all other strains collected, and one showed similarity to a strain isolated from a food handler. These results suggest contamination by raw milk as the main source of contamination of the final dairy products.     

Effect of endrin on the hepatic distribution of iron and calcium in female Sprague-Dawley rats.

The distribution of iron and calcium in hepatic subcellular fractions of female rats treated with endrin (1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7-epoxy-1,4,4 alpha,5,6,7,8,8 alpha- octahydroendo,endo-1,4:5,8-dimethanonaphthalene) was determined. Endrin in corn oil was administered orally to rats in single doses of 3, 4.5, or 6 mg/kg, and the animals were killed at 0, 12, 24, 48, or 72 hr post-treatment. Iron and calcium were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The administration of endrin increased the iron content of mitochondria and decreased the iron content of microsomes and nuclei. Significant increases occurred in the calcium content of mitochondria, microsomes, and nuclei. Thus, the results indicate that with respect to the subcellular distribution of iron and calcium, endrin produces differential effects. Vitamin E succinate administration partially prevented the endrin-induced hepatic alterations in iron and calcium homeostasis. Endrin also produced dose- and time-dependent increases in the liver and spleen weight/body weight ratios, while decreasing the thymus weight/body weight ratios. The altered distribution of calcium and iron may contribute to the broad range of effects of endrin.     

The effect of sublethal endrin exposure on rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson. I. Evaluation of serum cortisol concentrations and immune responsiveness

Two-hundred-and-forty rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri , were exposed for 30 days to sublethal concentrations of the pesticide endrin. On day 30, ten fish from each treatment group were sacrificed and examined for the ability of peritoneal macrophages to phagocytize latex beads. The remaining fish were immunized with 10 μg of Yersinia ruckeri O-antigen, and exposure to endrin continued. The migration inhibition factor assay (MIF), plaque forming cell assay (PFC), and serum agglutination titres (SAG) were performed 2, 14, and 30 days post-antigen inoculation. Serum was collected from all fish for serum cortisol concentrations. Endrin exposure had no effect on the phagocytic ability of peritoneal macrophages. However, the MIF, PFC and SAG responses were significantly reduced from control values. Serum cortisol concentrations were found to be significantly elevated in endrin-exposed fish. Serum cortisol concentrations were found to be significantly higher on days 44 and 60 (192 and 194 ng ml⁻¹, respectively) when compared to days 30 and 32 (159 and 141 ng ml⁻¹, respectively). Cortisol values for days 30 and 32 did not differ significantly, nor did those of days 44 and 60. The relationship between elevated serum cortisol concentrations and endrin exposure on the immune response is discussed.     

Mycotoxins in food systems in Sub Saharan Africa: A review

Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of fungi are now recognised as major cause of food intoxications in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA). Aflatoxins, the most important of the group have been implicated in acute aflatoxicoses, carcinogenicity, growth retardation, neonatal jaundice and immunological suppression in SSA. The hot and humid tropical climate provides ideal condition for growth of toxigenicAspergillus spp, making food contamination to be widespread in SSA, with maize and groundnuts being the most contaminated. The available data suggests that cassava products (the most important African food) are not prone to aflatoxin contamination. Recent data on ochratoxin A produced by species ofAspergillus on grains have indicated the necessity for it to be monitored in SSA. Fumonisins represent the most importantFusarium mycotoxins in SSA, and surveillance data indicate very high contamination rates of almost 100% in maize samples from West Africa. Limited information exists on the occurrence of trichothecenes, while the data currently available suggest that zearalenone contamination seems not to be a problem in SSA. The strategies under investigation to mitigate the mycotoxin problem in SSA include education of the people on the danger of consuming mouldy foods, pre and post harvest management strategies with emphasis on biological control, use of plant products to arrest fungal growth during storage, enterosorbent clay technology, and the search for traditional techniques that could reduce/detoxify mycotoxins during food processing.     

Epidemiological danger of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and alcoholism refusing treatment

The comparative evaluation of the epidemiological danger of alcohol-addicted persons with pulmonary tuberculosis who evaded treatment (the test group of 133 persons) and that of tuberculosis patients receiving adequate treatment under hospital conditions (the control group of 162 patients) was made. The morbidity level among relations having contacts with the patients evading treatment exceeded the morbidity level in the families of tuberculosis patients undergoing adequate treatment 4.5-fold for adults and 3.4-fold for children and adolescents, the contamination level in the latter group being twice as high. Although no cases of the disease were registered in the foci of infection where sick persons evading treatment had low bacterial discharge, still the elevated level of infection among children and adolescents in these foci as compared with the foci where tuberculosis patients did not evade treatment (35.0% and 21.7% respectively) indicated that the foci of infection where such aggravating factors as alcohol addiction in the source of infection was present were rightly considered to be epidemiologically most dangerous. Persons suffering with both tuberculosis and alcoholism should be subjected to compulsory hospitalization as early as possible.     

Tracking Microbial Contamination in Retail Environments Using Fluorescent Powder - A Retail Delicatessen Environment Example

Cross contamination of foodborne pathogens in the retail environment is a significant public health issue contributing to an increased risk for foodborne illness. Ready-to-eat (RTE) processed foods such as deli meats, cheese, and in some cases fresh produce, have been involved in foodborne disease outbreaks due to contamination with pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes. With respect to L. monocytogenes, deli slicers are often the main source of cross contamination. The goal of this study was to use a fluorescent compound to simulate bacterial contamination and track this contamination in a retail setting. A mock deli kitchen was designed to simulate the retail environment. Deli meat was inoculated with the fluorescent compound and volunteers were recruited to complete a set of tasks similar to those expected of a food retail employee. The volunteers were instructed to slice, package, and store the meat in a deli refrigerator. The potential cross contamination was tracked in the mock retail environment by swabbing specific areas and measuring the optical density of the swabbed area with a spectrophotometer. The results indicated that the refrigerator (i.e. deli case) grip and various areas on the slicer had the highest risk for cross contamination. The results of this study may be used to develop more focused training material for retail employees. In addition, similar methodologies could also be used to track microbial contamination in food production environments (e.g. small farms), hospitals, nursing homes, cruise ships, and hotels.     

Effect of endrin on the hepatic distribution of iron and calcium in female sprague-dawley rats

The distribution of iron and calcium in hepatic subcellular fractions of female rats treated with endrin (1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 10-hexachloro-6, 7-epoxy-1, 4, 4α, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8α-octahydroendo, endo-1, 4:5, 8-dimethanonaphthalene) was determined. Endrin in corn oil was administered orally to rats in single doses of 3, 4.5, or 6 mg/kg, and the animals were killed at 0, 12, 24, 48, or 72 hr posttreatment. Iron and calcium were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The administration of endrin increased the iron content of mitochondria and decreased the iron content of microsomes and nuclei. Significant increases occurred in the calcium content of mitochondria, microsomes, and nuclei. Thus, the results indicate that with respect to the subcellular distribution of iron and calcium, endrin produces differential effects. Vitamin E succinate administration partially prevented the endrin-induced hepatic alterations in iron and calcium homeostasis. Endrin also produced dose- and time-dependent increases in the liver and spleen weight/body weight ratios, while decreasing the thymus weight/body weight ratios. The altered distribution of calcium and iron may contribute to the broad range of effects of endrin.     

Physiological mechanism of toxic action of DDT and endrin in two euryhaline freshwater fishes, Anguilla vulgaris and Mugil cephalus

RBC counts, Ht value and Hb content in both species exposed to DDT and endrin concentrations were not significantly different from those of controls. WBC counts in both species exposed to the two pesticides for 96 hr decreased significantly at different concentrations. The variance ratios of cations and anions were consistently more concentrated in the serum of DDT- and endrin-exposed fishes. Serum cholesterol was sharply elevated in all the lots exposed to pesticides. Exposure to sublethal concentrations of DDT and endrin impaired liver function, as evidenced by the transfer of major cations from hepatic tissue to the serum and by elevated serum cholesterol.