Calcium signals and mitochondria at fertilisation

At fertilisation, Ca(2+) signals activate embryonic development by stimulating metabolism, exocytosis and endocytosis, cytoskeletal remodelling, meiotic resumption and recruitment of maternal RNAs. Mitochondria present in large number in eggs have long been thought to act as a relay in Ca(2+) signalling at fertilisation. However, only recently have studies on ascidians and mouse proven that sperm-triggered Ca(2+) waves are transduced into mitochondrial Ca(2+) signals that stimulate mitochondrial respiration. Mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake can substantially buffer cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration and the concerted action of heterogeneously distributed mitochondria in the mature egg may modulate the spatiotemporal pattern of sperm-triggered Ca(2+) waves. Regulation of fertilisation Ca(2+) signals could also be achieved through mitochondrial ATP production and mitochondrial oxidant activity but these hypotheses remain to be explored. A critically poised dynamic interplay between Ca(2+) signals and mitochondrial metabolism is stimulated at fertilisation and may well determine whether the embryo can proceed further into development. The monitoring of Ca(2+) signals and mitochondrial activity during fertilisation in living zygotes of diverse species should confirm the universality of the role for sperm-triggered Ca(2+) waves in the activation of mitochondrial activity at fertilisation.     

Interaction of luminal calcium and cytosolic ATP in the control of type 1 inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate receptor channels

Ca(2+) within intracellular stores (luminal Ca(2+)) is believed to play a role in regulating Ca(2+) release into the cytosol via the inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P(3))-gated Ca(2+) channel (or Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptor). To investigate this, we incorporated purified Type 1 Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptor from rat cerebellum into planar lipid bilayers and monitored effects at altered luminal [Ca(2+)] using K(+) as the current carrier. At a high luminal [Ca(2+)] and in the presence of optimal [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)] and cytosolic [Ca(2+)], a short burst of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptor channel activity was followed by complete inactivation. Lowering the luminal [Ca(2+)] caused the channel to reactivate indefinitely. At luminal [Ca(2+)], reflecting a partially empty store, channel activity did not inactivate. The addition of cytosolic ATP to a channel inactivated by high luminal [Ca(2+)] caused reactivation. We provide evidence that luminal Ca(2+) is exerting its effects via a direct interaction with the luminal face of the receptor. Activation of the receptor by ATP may act as a device by which cytosolic Ca(2+) overload is prevented when the energy state of the cell is compromised.     

Mitochondrial Ca2+ and the heart

It is now well established that mitochondria accumulate Ca(2+) ions during cytosolic Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](i)) elevations in a variety of cell types including cardiomyocytes. Elevations in intramitochondrial Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](m)) activate several key enzymes in the mitochondrial matrix to enhance ATP production, alter the spatial and temporal profile of intracellular Ca(2+) signaling, and play an important role in the initiation of cell death pathways. Moreover, mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake stimulates nitric oxide (NO) production by mitochondria, which modulates oxygen consumption, ATP production, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and in turn provides negative feedback for the regulation of mitochondrial Ca(2+) accumulation. Controversy remains, however, whether in cardiac myocytes mitochondrial Ca(2+) transport mechanisms allow beat-to-beat transmission of fast cytosolic [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations into oscillatory changes in mitochondrial matrix [Ca(2+)](m). This review critically summarizes the recent experimental work in this field.     

Calcium waves in intact guinea pig gallbladder smooth muscle cells

Intracellular Ca(2+) waves and spontaneous transient depolarizations were investigated in gallbladder smooth muscle (GBSM) whole mount preparations with intact mucosal layer [full thickness (FT)] by laser confocal imaging of intracellular Ca(2+) and voltage recordings with microelectrodes, respectively. Spontaneous Ca(2+) waves arose most often near the center, but sometimes from the extremities, of GBSM cells. They propagated regeneratively by Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release involving inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)] receptors and were not affected by TTX and atropine (ATS). Spontaneous Ca(2+) waves and spontaneous transient depolarizations were more prevalent in FT than in isolated muscularis layer preparations and occurred with similar pattern in GBSM bundles. Ca(2+) waves were abolished by the Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptor inhibitors 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate and xestospongin C and by caffeine and cyclopiazonic acid. These events were reduced by voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs) inhibitors diltiazem and nifedipine, by PLC inhibitor U-73122, and by thapsigargin and ryanodine. ACh, CCK, and carbachol augmented Ca(2+) waves and induced Ca(2+) flashes. The actions of these agonists were inhibited by U-73122. These results indicate that in GBSM, discharge and propagation of Ca(2+) waves depend on sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) release via Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptors, PLC activity, Ca(2+) influx via VDCCs, and SR Ca(2+) concentration. Neurohormonal enhancement of GBSM excitability involves PLC-dependent augmentation and synchronization of SR Ca(2+) release via Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptors. Ca(2+) waves likely reflect the activity of a fundamental unit of spontaneous activity and play an important role in the excitability of GBSM.     

Rapid Ca2+-dependent increase in oxygen consumption by mitochondria in single mammalian central neurons

Oxygen consumption increases within a fraction of a second after the onset of neuronal activity, a phenomenon referred to as the "initial dip" in functional imaging studies of the living brain. The cellular mechanism that underlies this rapid increase in oxygen consumption has remained unclear, however. We have now used two-photon excitation imaging to characterize rapid activity-dependent mitochondrial responses in single neurons. This approach allowed simultaneous multicolor imaging of individual mitochondria in single mouse Purkinje neurons in culture. Mitochondrial depolarization was induced immediately when the cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) exceeded 15 microM and was associated with oxidation of mitochondrial NAD(P)H, suggesting that Ca(2+)-induced mitochondrial depolarization mediated by the Ca(2+) uniporter directly facilitated oxidation of NAD(P)H. With the use of a miniature oxygen electrode, we detected a burst of oxygen consumption within 0.2s after the onset of cell depolarization in single Purkinje neurons, and this rapid increase in oxygen consumption was dependent on the increase in [Ca(2+)](i). We have thus demonstrated a rapid Ca(2+)-dependent consumption of oxygen that is mediated by mitochondrial depolarization in mammalian central neurons. This process might function as a rapid feed-forward mechanism in homeostatic control of the cytosolic ATP concentration.     

Growth of Pollen Tubes of Papaver rhoeas Is Regulated by a Slow-Moving Calcium Wave Propagated by Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate

A signaling role for cytosolic free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) in regulating Papaver rhoeas pollen tube growth during the self-incompatibility response has been demonstrated previously. In this article, we investigate the involvement of the phosphoinositide signal transduction pathway in Ca2+-mediated pollen tube inhibition. We demonstrate that P. rhoeas pollen tubes have a Ca2+-dependent polyphosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C activity that is inhibited by neomycin. [Ca2+]i imaging after photolysis of caged inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate (Ins[1,4,5]P3) in pollen tubes demonstrated that Ins(1,4,5)P3 could induce Ca2+ release, which was inhibited by heparin and neomycin. Mastoparan, which stimulated Ins(1,4,5)P3 production, also induced a rapid increase in Ca2+, which was inhibited by neomycin. These data provide direct evidence for the involvement of a functional phosphoinositide signal-transducing system in the regulation of pollen tube growth. We suggest that the observed Ca2+ increases are mediated, at least in part, by Ins(1,4,5)P3-induced Ca2+ release. Furthermore, we provide data suggesting that Ca2+ waves, which have not previously been reported in plant cells, can be induced in pollen tubes.     

Specific inositol phosphates inhibit basal and calmodulin-stimulated Ca(2+)-ATPase activity in human erythrocyte membranes in vitro and inhibit binding of calmodulin to membranes.

D-Myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins[1,4-,5]P3) inhibits rat heart sarcolemmal Ca(2+)-ATPase activity (T. H. Kuo, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 152: 1111, 1988). We have studied the effect and mechanism of action of Ins(1,4,5)P3 and related inositol phosphates on human red cell membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase (EC 3.6.1.3) activity in vitro. At 10(-6) M, Ins(1,4,5)P3 and D-myo-inositol 4,5-bisphosphate (Ins[4,5]P2) inhibited human erythrocyte membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase activity in vitro by 42 and 31%, respectively. D-Myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate, D-myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphate, and D-myo-inositol 1-phosphate were not inhibitory. Enzyme inhibition by Ins(1,4,5)P3 was blocked by heparin. Exogenous purified calmodulin also stimulated red cell membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase activity; this stimulation was inhibited by Ins(1,4,5)P3. Ins(4,5)P2 and Ins(1,4,5)P3, but not Ins(1,4)P2, inhibited the binding of [125I]calmodulin to red cell membranes. Thus, specific inositol phosphates reduce plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase activity and enhancement of the latter in vitro by purified calmodulin. The mechanism of these effects may in part relate to inhibition by inositol phosphates of binding of calmodulin to erythrocyte membranes.     

Fertilisation calcium signals in the ascidian egg

The egg of ascidians (urochordate), as virtually all animal and plant species, displays Ca2+ signals upon fertilisation. These Ca2+ signals are repetitive Ca2+ waves that initiate in the cortex of the egg and spread through the whole egg interior. Two series of Ca2+ waves triggered from two distinct Ca2+ wave pacemakers entrain the two meiotic divisions preceding entry into the first interphase. The second messenger inositol (1,4,5) trisphosphate (IP3) is the main mediator of these global Ca2+ waves. Other Ca2+ signalling pathways (RyR and NAADPR) are functional in the egg but they mediate localised cortical Ca2+ signals whose physiological significance remains unclear. The meiosis I Ca2+ wave pacemaker is mobile and relies on intracellular Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) induced by a large production of IP3 at the sperm aster site. The meiosis II Ca2+ wave pacemaker is stably localised in a vegetal protrusion called the contraction pole. It is probable that a local production of IP3 in the contraction pole determines the site of this second pacemaker while functional interactions between ER and mitochondria regulate its activity. Finally, a third ectopic pacemaker can be induced by a global increase in IP3, making the ascidian egg a unique system where three different Ca2+ wave pacemakers coexist in the same cell.     

Mitochondria and Ca(2+)in cell physiology and pathophysiology

There is now a consensus that mitochondria take up and accumulate Ca(2+)during physiological [Ca(2+)](c)signalling. This contribution will consider some of the functional consequences of mitochondrial Ca(2+)uptake for cell physiology and pathophysiology. The ability to remove Ca(2+)from local cytosol enables mitochondria to regulate the [Ca(2+)] in microdomains close to IP3-sensitive Ca(2+)-release channels. The [Ca(2+)] sensitivity of these channels means that, by regulating local [Ca(2+)](c), mitochondrial Ca(2+)uptake modulates the rate and extent of propagation of [Ca(2+)](c)waves in a variety of cell types. The coincidence of mitochondrial Ca(2+)uptake with oxidative stress may open the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). This is a catastrophic event for the cell that will initiate pathways to cell death either by necrotic or apoptotic pathways. A model is presented in which illumination of an intramitochondrial fluorophore is used to generate oxygen radical species within mitochondria. This causes mitochondrial Ca(2+)loading from SR and triggers mPTP opening. In cardiomyocytes, mPTP opening leads to ATP consumption by the mitochondrial ATPase and so results in ATP depletion, rigor and necrotic cell death. In central mammalian neurons exposed to glutamate, a cellular Ca(2+)overload coincident with NO production also causes loss of mitochondrial potential and cell death, but mPTP involvement has proven more difficult to demonstrate unequivocally.     

Luminal Ca2+ controls the activation of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor by cytosolic Ca2+.

Luminal Ca2+ controls the sensitivity of the intracellular Ca2+ stores to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3). Ins(1,4,5)P3-induced Ca2+ release is also controlled by cytosolic Ca2+; low concentrations of Ca2+ stimulate the release. The aim of this work was to investigate whether luminal Ca2+ would affect the stimulation of the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor by cytosolic Ca2+ in permeabilized A7r5 smooth muscle cells. We also report that the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor in A7r5 cells is activated by low concentrations of cytosolic Ca2+. Cytoplasmic Ca2+ increases the Ins(1,4,5)P3 sensitivity without affecting the cooperativity. The increase in Ins(1,4,5)P3 sensitivity becomes relatively more pronounced when the Ca2+ content of the stores decreases. This modulatory effect of luminal Ca2+ on the responsiveness to cytosolic Ca2+ is an intrinsic property of the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor.     

Role of mitochondrial Ca2+ in the regulation of cellular energetics

Calcium is an important signaling molecule involved in the regulation of many cellular functions. The large free energy in the Ca(2+) ion membrane gradients makes Ca(2+) signaling inherently sensitive to the available cellular free energy, primarily in the form of ATP. In addition, Ca(2+) regulates many cellular ATP-consuming reactions such as muscle contraction, exocytosis, biosynthesis, and neuronal signaling. Thus, Ca(2+) becomes a logical candidate as a signaling molecule for modulating ATP hydrolysis and synthesis during changes in numerous forms of cellular work. Mitochondria are the primary source of aerobic energy production in mammalian cells and also maintain a large Ca(2+) gradient across their inner membrane, providing a signaling potential for this molecule. The demonstrated link between cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca(2+) concentrations, identification of transport mechanisms, and the proximity of mitochondria to Ca(2+) release sites further supports the notion that Ca(2+) can be an important signaling molecule in the energy metabolism interplay of the cytosol with the mitochondria. Here we review sites within the mitochondria where Ca(2+) plays a role in the regulation of ATP generation and potentially contributes to the orchestration of cellular metabolic homeostasis. Early work on isolated enzymes pointed to several matrix dehydrogenases that are stimulated by Ca(2+), which were confirmed in the intact mitochondrion as well as cellular and in vivo systems. However, studies in these intact systems suggested a more expansive influence of Ca(2+) on mitochondrial energy conversion. Numerous noninvasive approaches monitoring NADH, mitochondrial membrane potential, oxygen consumption, and workloads suggest significant effects of Ca(2+) on other elements of NADH generation as well as downstream elements of oxidative phosphorylation, including the F(1)F(O)-ATPase and the cytochrome chain. These other potential elements of Ca(2+) modification of mitochondrial energy conversion will be the focus of this review. Though most specific molecular mechanisms have yet to be elucidated, it is clear that Ca(2+) provides a balanced activation of mitochondrial energy metabolism that exceeds the alteration of dehydrogenases alone.     

Uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) modulates the activity of Sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) by decreasing mitochondrial ATP production

The uncoupling proteins UCP2 and UCP3 have been postulated to catalyze Ca(2+) entry across the inner membrane of mitochondria, but this proposal is disputed, and other, unrelated proteins have since been identified as the mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter. To clarify the role of UCPs in mitochondrial Ca(2+) handling, we down-regulated the expression of the only uncoupling protein of HeLa cells, UCP3, and measured Ca(2+) and ATP levels in the cytosol and in organelles with genetically encoded probes. UCP3 silencing did not alter mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake in permeabilized cells. In intact cells, however, UCP3 depletion increased mitochondrial ATP production and strongly reduced the cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca(2+) elevations evoked by histamine. The reduced Ca(2+) elevations were due to inhibition of store-operated Ca(2+) entry and reduced depletion of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+) stores. UCP3 depletion accelerated the ER Ca(2+) refilling kinetics, indicating that the activity of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) (SERCA) pumps was increased. Accordingly, SERCA inhibitors reversed the effects of UCP3 depletion on cytosolic, ER, and mitochondrial Ca(2+) responses. Our results indicate that UCP3 is not a mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter and that it instead negatively modulates the activity of SERCA by limiting mitochondrial ATP production. The effects of UCP3 on mitochondrial Ca(2+) thus reflect metabolic alterations that impact on cellular Ca(2+) homeostasis. The sensitivity of SERCA to mitochondrial ATP production suggests that mitochondria control the local ATP availability at ER Ca(2+) uptake and release sites.     

Different roles of ryanodine receptors and inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate receptors in adrenergically stimulated contractions of small arteries

The functions of ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate receptors [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)Rs] in adrenergically activated contractions of pressurized rat mesenteric small arteries were investigated. Caffeine (20 mM) but not phenylephrine (PE; 10 microM) facilitated the depletion of smooth muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) stores by ryanodine (40 microM). In ryanodine-treated SR-depleted arteries, 1) Ca(2+) sparks were absent, 2) low concentrations of PE failed to elicit either vasoconstriction or normal asynchronous propagating Ca(2+) waves, and 3) high [PE] induced abnormally slow oscillatory contractions (vasomotion) and synchronous Ca(2+) oscillations. In ryanodine-treated SR-depleted arteries denuded of endothelium, high [PE] induced steady contraction and steady elevation of intracellular [Ca(2+)]. In contrast, 2-aminoethyl diphenylborate (2-APB), a putative blocker of Ins(1,4,5)P(3)Rs, produced opposite effects to ryanodine: 1) Ca(2+) sparks were present; 2) Ca(2+) waves were absent; 3) caffeine-releasable Ca(2+) stores were intact; and 4) PE, even at high concentrations on endothelial-denuded arteries, failed to elicit contraction, asynchronous Ca(2+) waves, or synchronous Ca(2+) oscillations or maintained elevated [Ca(2+)]. We conclude that 1) Ins(1,4,5)P(3)Rs are essential for adrenergically induced asynchronous Ca(2+) waves and the associated steady vasoconstriction, 2) RyRs are not appreciably opened during adrenergic activation (because PE did not facilitate the development of the effects of ryanodine), and 3) Ins(1,4,5)P(3)Rs are not essential for Ca(2+) sparks. This provides an explanation of the fact that adrenergic stimulation decreases the frequency of Ca(2+) sparks (previously reported) while simultaneously increasing the frequency of asynchronous propagating Ca(2+) waves; different SR Ca(2+)-release channels are involved.     

Functionally separate intracellular Ca2+ stores in smooth muscle

In smooth muscle, release via the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P(3)R) and ryanodine receptors (RyR) on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) controls oscillatory and steady-state cytosolic Ca(2+) concentrations ([Ca(2+)](c)). The interplay between the two receptors, itself determined by their organization on the SR, establishes the time course and spatial arrangement of the Ca(2+) signal. Whether or not the receptors are co-localized or distanced from each other on the same store or whether they exist on separate stores will significantly affect the Ca(2+) signal produced by the SR. To date these matters remain unresolved. The functional arrangement of the RyR and Ins(1,4,5)P(3)R on the SR has now been examined in isolated single voltage-clamped colonic myocytes. Depletion of the ryanodine-sensitive store, by repeated application of caffeine, in the presence of ryanodine, abolished the response to Ins(1,4,5)P(3), suggesting that Ins(1,4,5)P(3)R and RyR share a common Ca(2+) store. Ca(2+) release from the Ins(1,4,5)P(3)R did not activate Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release at the RyR. Depletion of the Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-sensitive store, by the removal of external Ca(2+), on the other hand, caused only a small decrease ( approximately 26%) in caffeine-evoked Ca(2+) transients, suggesting that not all RyR exist on the common store shared with Ins(1,4,5)P(3)R. Dependence of the stores on external Ca(2+) for replenishment also differed; removal of external Ca(2+) depleted the Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-sensitive store but caused only a slight reduction in caffeine-evoked transients mediated at RyR. Different mechanisms are presumably responsible for the refilling of each store. Refilling of both Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-sensitive and caffeine-sensitive Ca(2+) stores was inhibited by each of the SR Ca(2+) ATPase inhibitors thapsigargin and cyclopiazonic acid. These results may be explained by the existence of two functionally distinct Ca(2+) stores; the first expressing only RyR and refilled from [Ca(2+)](c), the second expressing both Ins(1,4,5)P(3)R and RyR and dependent upon external Ca(2+) for refilling.     

Mitochondrial [Ca(2+)] oscillations driven by local high [Ca(2+)] domains generated by spontaneous electric activity

Mitochondria take up calcium during cell activation thus shaping Ca(2+) signaling and exocytosis. In turn, Ca(2+) uptake by mitochondria increases respiration and ATP synthesis. Targeted aequorins are excellent Ca(2+) probes for subcellular analysis, but single-cell imaging has proven difficult. Here we combine virus-based expression of targeted aequorins with photon-counting imaging to resolve dynamics of the cytosolic, mitochondrial, and nuclear Ca(2+) signals at the single-cell level in anterior pituitary cells. These cells exhibit spontaneous electric activity and cytosolic Ca(2+) oscillations that are responsible for basal secretion of pituitary hormones and are modulated by hypophysiotrophic factors. Aequorin reported spontaneous [Ca(2+)] oscillations in all the three compartments, bulk cytosol, nucleus, and mitochondria. Interestingly, a fraction of mitochondria underwent much larger [Ca(2+)] oscillations, which were driven by local high [Ca(2+)] domains generated by the spontaneous electric activity. These oscillations were large enough to stimulate respiration, providing the basis for local tune-up of mitochondrial function by the Ca(2+) signal.     

Selective ion changes during spontaneous mitochondrial transients in intact astrocytes

The bioenergetic status of cells is tightly regulated by the activity of cytosolic enzymes and mitochondrial ATP production. To adapt their metabolism to cellular energy needs, mitochondria have been shown to exhibit changes in their ionic composition as the result of changes in cytosolic ion concentrations. Individual mitochondria also exhibit spontaneous changes in their electrical potential without altering those of neighboring mitochondria. We recently reported that individual mitochondria of intact astrocytes exhibit spontaneous transient increases in their Na(+) concentration. Here, we investigated whether the concentration of other ionic species were involved during mitochondrial transients. By combining fluorescence imaging methods, we performed a multiparameter study of spontaneous mitochondrial transients in intact resting astrocytes. We show that mitochondria exhibit coincident changes in their Na(+) concentration, electrical potential, matrix pH and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production during a mitochondrial transient without involving detectable changes in their Ca(2+) concentration. Using widefield and total internal reflection fluorescence imaging, we found evidence for localized transient decreases in the free Mg(2+) concentration accompanying mitochondrial Na(+) spikes that could indicate an associated local and transient enrichment in the ATP concentration. Therefore, we propose a sequential model for mitochondrial transients involving a localized ATP microdomain that triggers a Na(+)-mediated mitochondrial depolarization, transiently enhancing the activity of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Our work provides a model describing ionic changes that could support a bidirectional cytosol-to-mitochondria ionic communication.     

Spatial and temporal organization of calcium signalling in hepatocytes.

Treatment of hepatocytes with agonists which act via the second messenger inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3), results in increases of cytosolic free Ca2+ [( Ca2+]i) which are manifest as a series of discrete [Ca2+]i transients or oscillations. With increasing agonist dose [Ca2+]i oscillation frequency increases and the initial latent period decreases, but the amplitude of the [Ca2+]i oscillations remains constant. Studies of these [Ca2+]i oscillations at the subcellular level have indicated that the [Ca2+]i changes do not occur synchronously throughout the cell, but initiate at a specific subcellular domain, adjacent to a region of the plasma membrane, and then propagate through the cell as a [Ca2+]i wave. For a given ceil, the locus of [Ca2+]i wave initiation is constant for every oscillation in a series and is also identical when the cell is sequentially stimulated with different agonists or when the phospholipase C-linked G protein is activated directly using AIF4-. The kinetics of the [Ca2+]i waves indicate that a Ca(2+)-activated mechanism is involved in propagating the oscillatory [Ca2+]i increases throughout the cell, and the data appear to be most consistent with a process of Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release. It is proposed that the ability to propagate [Ca2+]i oscillations into regions of the cell distal to the region in which the signal transduction apparatus is localized could serve an important function in allowing all parts of the cell to respond to the stimulus.     

Role of elementary Ca(2+) puffs in generating repetitive Ca(2+) oscillations

Inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate (IP(3)) liberates intracellular Ca(2+) both as localized 'puffs' and as repetitive waves that encode information in a frequency-dependent manner. Using video-rate confocal imaging, together with photorelease of IP(3) in Xenopus oocytes, we investigated the roles of puffs in determining the periodicity of global Ca(2+) waves. Wave frequency is not delimited solely by cyclical recovery of the cell's ability to support wave propagation, but further involves sensitization of Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release by progressive increases in puff frequency and amplitude at numerous sites during the interwave period, and accumulation of pacemaker Ca(2+), allowing a puff at a 'focal' site to trigger a subsequent wave. These specific 'focal' sites, distinguished by their higher sensitivity to IP(3) and close apposition to neighboring puff sites, preferentially entrain both the temporal frequency and spatial directionality of Ca(2+) waves. Although summation of activity from many stochastic puff sites promotes the generation of regularly periodic global Ca(2+) signals, the properties of individual Ca(2+) puffs control the kinetics of Ca(2+) spiking and the (higher) frequency of subcellular spikes in their local microdomain.     

Regulation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinases by calcium and localization in cells

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P(3)) 3-kinases (IP(3)Ks) are a group of calmodulin-regulated inositol polyphosphate kinases (IPKs) that convert the second messenger Ins(1,4,5)P(3) into inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate. However, what they contribute to the complexities of Ca(2+) signaling, and how, is still not fully understood. In this study, we have used a simple Ca(2+) imaging assay to compare the abilities of various Ins (1,4,5)P(3)-metabolizing enzymes to regulate a maximal histamine-stimulated Ca(2+) signal in HeLa cells. Using transient transfection, we overexpressed green fluorescent protein-tagged versions of all three mammalian IP(3)K isoforms, including mutants with disrupted cellular localization or calmodulin regulation, and then imaged the Ca(2+) release stimulated by 100 microm histamine. Both localization to the F-actin cytoskeleton and calmodulin regulation enhance the efficiency of mammalian IP(3)Ks to dampen the Ins (1,4,5)P(3)-mediated Ca(2+) signals. We also compared the effects of the these IP(3)Ks with other enzymes that metabolize Ins(1,4,5)P(3), including the Type I Ins(1,4,5)P(3) 5-phosphatase, in both membrane-targeted and soluble forms, the human inositol polyphosphate multikinase, and the two isoforms of IP(3)K found in Drosophila. All reduce the Ca(2+) signal but to varying degrees. We demonstrate that the activity of only one of two IP(3)K isoforms from Drosophila is positively regulated by calmodulin and that neither isoform associates with the cytoskeleton. Together the data suggest that IP(3)Ks evolved to regulate kinetic and spatial aspects of Ins (1,4,5)P(3) signals in increasingly complex ways in vertebrates, consistent with their probable roles in the regulation of higher brain and immune function.