Drastic effects of El Niño on Galapagos pinnipeds

Summary Population dynamics of pinnipeds living in the tropical upwelling ecosystem of the Galapagos were strongly influenced by the 1982–83 Southern Oscillation-El Niño (EN) event which was the strongest recorded in this century. The Galapagos fur seal (Arctocephalus galapagoensis) population lost the four youngest year classes (1980–1983) almost entirely and approximately 30% of the adult females and non-territorial males. Mortality of large territorial males was almost 100%. Most of the 1982 year class of Galapagos sea lions (Zalophus californianus wollebaeki) died and there was a much lower pup production in the breeding season following EN. Recurrent EN events must strongly influence age structure and average population size of these and other otariid species depending on tropical upwelling ecosystems.     

Systematic Studies of the Genus A<Emphasis Type="Italic">egialomys</Emphasis> Weksler et al., 2006 (Rodentia: Cricetidae: Sigmodontinae): Geographic Variation,Species Delimitation,and Biogeography

Aegialomys occurs in open habitats west of the Ecuadorean and Peruvian Andes, including the Galapagos Archipelago. This genus currently includes two species, A. galapagoensis and A. xanthaeolus. We studied patterns of geographic variation to characterize the morphologic and morphometric variation and recognize diagnosable clusters of samples. Employing this evidence, within a phylogenetic framework employing morphological, molecular, and concatenated matrices, we diagnose monophyletic lineages and assign the appropriate names to species–group taxa. Qualitatively, we noted geographic variation in some characters, and quantitatively there is a pronounced increase in cranial dimensions along the north–south distribution axis, revealing the existence of four distinct clusters: North, South, Extreme South, and Galapagos. These results, along with the phylogenetic relationships, allowed us to hypothesize that Aegialomys exhibits four monophyletic species that we call: Aegialomys galapagoensis, restricted to the Galapagos Archipelago; Aegialomys xanthaeolus, distributed from Ecuador to northern Peru; Aegialomys baroni, ocurring in Central Perú; and Aegialomys ica, distributed in southern Peru. Our distributional data suggest that species discontinuities are associated with some well-known barriers in the western portion of South America. Through the Andes and trans–Andean area, there are some geographic features or areas, the Huancabamba Depression, that historically played a key role as barriers to plant and animal dispersion or as a boundaries to species distribution.     

Integrative taxonomy of New Caledonian beetles: species delimitation and definition of the Uloma isoceroides species group (Coleoptera,Tenebrionidae, Ulomini), with the description of four new species

New Caledonia is an important biodiversity hotspot with much undocumented biodiversity, especially in many insect groups. Here we used an integrative approach to explore species diversity in the tenebrionid genus Uloma (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae, Ulomini), which encompasses about 150 species, of which 22 are known from New Caledonia. To do so, we focused on a morphologically homogeneous group by comparing museum specimens with material collected during several recent field trips. We also conducted molecular phylogenetic analyses based on a concatenated matrix of four mitochondrial and three nuclear genes for 46 specimens. The morphological study allowed us to discover and describe four new species that belong to the group of interest, the Uloma isoceroides group. Molecular analyses confirmed the species boundaries of several of the previously described species and established the validity of the four new species. The phylogenetic analyses also provided additional information on the evolutionary history of the group, highlighting that a species that was thought to be unrelated to the group was in fact a member of the same evolutionary lineage. Molecular species delimitation confirmed the status of the sampled species of the group and also suggested some hidden (cryptic) biodiversity for at least two species of the group. Altogether this integrative taxonomic approach has allowed us to better define the boundaries of the Uloma isoceroides species group, which comprises at least 10 species: Uloma isoceroides (Fauvel, 1904), Uloma opacipennis (Fauvel, 1904), Uloma caledonica Kaszab, 1982, Uloma paniei Kaszab, 1982, Uloma monteithi Kaszab, 1986, Uloma robusta Kaszab, 1986, Uloma clamensae sp. n., Uloma condaminei sp. n., Uloma jourdani sp. n., and Uloma kergoati sp. n. We advocate more studies on other New Caledonian groups, as we expect that much undocumented biodiversity can be unveiled through the use of similar approaches.     

Contributions to the systematics of the genus Microsiphum (homoptera, aphididae)

Microsiphum Cholodkovsky (Macrosiphini) is a small genus comprising 11 species and subspecies distributed in the Palaearctic Region. After examination of the collection of the Institute of Zoology (Kazakhstan), Microsiphum diversisetosum sp. n. from Artemisia abrotanum (northern and western Kazakhstan) is described. New synonymies are established: M. nudum Holman, 1961 = M. minus Bozhko, 1963, syn. n., M. ptarmicae Cholodkovsky, 1902 = M. heptapotamicum Kadyrbekov, 2000, syn. n. The taxonomic rank of M. procerae subalpicum Mamontova, 1982 stat. n. and M. jazykovi wahlgreni Hille Ris Lambers, 1947 stat. n. is changed. A key to the known taxa of the genus Microsiphum is given.     

The spider family Filistatidae (Araneae) in Iran

All species of Filistatidae occurring in Iran are surveyed. Zaitunia akhanii sp. n. is described on the basis of female specimens collected in Tehran province, and the previously unknown male of Sahastata sinuspersica Marusik, Zamani & Mirshamsi, 2014 is described for the first time. Also, the endogynes of the holotypes of Zaitunia alexandri Brignoli, 1982, Zaitunia medica Brignoli, 1982 and Zaitunia persica Brignoli, 1982 are illustrated. Including these results, the number of Iranian species of Filistatidae is increased to seven, which indicates the highest species-richness of this family in the Western Palaearctic.     

Three new cryptic species of Euglossa from Brazil (Hymenoptera,Apidae)

Three new species of orchid bees are described and figured from the Amazon and Atlantic forests of Brazil. Euglossa clausi sp. n., Euglossa moratoi sp. n., and Euglossa pepei sp. n. are distinguished from their close congeners Euglossa crassipunctata Moure, Euglossa parvula Dressler, and Euglossa sapphirina Moure, previously placed in the subgenus Euglossa (Glossurella) Dressler, 1982, a demonstrably paraphyletic assemblage requiring serious reconsideration. Their affinities with related species are discussed and pertinent characters are figured.     

Eight polymorphic microsatellite markers isolated from the widespread avian louse Colpocephalum turbinatum (Phthiraptera: Amblycera: Menoponidae)

We report eight novel microsatellite loci for Colpocephalum turbinatum, a parasitic louse of the endangered Galápagos hawk (Buteo galapagoensis). Two island populations of C. turbinatum (N = 30) were genotyped for each locus. We found between two and 12 alleles per locus, polymorphic information content from 0.268 to 0.798, observed heterozygosity from 0.067 to 0.667 and no linkage disequilibrium was detected between loci. These markers will be useful in understanding contemporary gene flow of C. turbinatum among islands in the Galápagos and in understanding transmission dynamics between B. galapagoensis hosts, within and between social groups. Because this louse is unusually widespread among avian host taxa, parasitizing at least 53 bird species in the Falconiformes, Strigiformes and Columbiformes, these markers are likely to be useful outside the context of the Galápagos Islands.     

Phylogenetic affinities and systematic position of Entomelas sylvestris Baker, 1982 (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae), a parasite of Breviceps sylvestris FitzSimons (Amphibia: Brevicipitidae) in South Africa

The genus Entomelas Travassos, 1930 currently includes nine species of rhabdiasid nematodes, eight of them parasitic in lizards and only one, Entomelas sylvestris Baker, 1982, parasitic in amphibians. Entomelas sylvestris was originally described from the Forest Rain Frog Breviceps sylvestris FitzSimons in South Africa and was not reported since. It was placed in the genus Entomelas without any specific arguments for this taxonomic decision, presumably mainly based on details of the buccal capsule morphology. We have found this species in the same host in Limpopo province, South Africa. Molecular phylogenetic analysis based on the newly-obtained sequence of complete ITS region and partial nuclear large ribosomal subunit (28S) gene of E. sylvestris and previously published sequences of a variety of other rhabdiasid taxa, has convincingly demonstrated that this species does not belong in Entomelas. Instead, it clustered together with the members of Rhabdias Stiles & Hassall, 1905 from amphibian hosts. Therefore, we transfer E. sylvestris into Rhabdias as Rhabdias sylvestris (Baker, 1982) n. comb. In our analysis E. sylvestris appears, albeit with weak support, as a basal/sister taxon to the rest of Rhabdias spp. which explains to some extent the differences in the buccal capsule morphology between this species and other Rhabdias spp.     

Ground-beetles of the subgenus Cryptophonus Brandm. et Z. Brandm., genus Harpalus Latr. (Coleoptera, Carabidae)

A taxonomic review of ten species of the subgenus Cryptophonus Brandmayr et Zetto Brandmayr, 1982, the genus Harpalus Latreille, 1802 is given. In addition to nine Palaearctic species, the Ethiopian H. agnatus Reiche, 1849 is also included in Cryptophonus. Harpalus cyrenaicus Koch, 1939, stat. n. from Libya, which was originally described as a subspecies of H. litigiosus Dejean, 1829, is treated as a distinct species. Harpalus tenebrosus Dejean, 1829 is treated as a polytypical species with two subspecies: H. t. tenebrosus (West Palaearctic) and H. t. paivanus Wollaston, 1867, stat. n. (Cabo Verde). A new substitute name H. melancholicus reicheianus nom. n. is proposed to replace the objective homonyms H. reichei Jacobson, 1907 (non Desbrochers des Loges, 1867) and H. ovalis Reiche, 1861 (non Motschulsky, 1844). Lectotypes are designated for H. tenebrosus Dejean, 1829, H. paivanus Wollaston, 1867, H. litigiosus Dejean, 1829, H. agnatus Reiche, 1849, H. fulvus Dejean, 1829, H. melancholicus Dejean, 1829, and H. ineditus Dejean, 1829. The status and diagnosis of Cryptophonus are discussed and a key to all the species of this subgenus is provided. Data on distribution of each species are provided. The following species are recorded for the first time: H. tenebrosus from Afghanistan, H. grilli Kataev, 2002 from India (Uttarhand), H. agnatus Reiche, 1849 from Tanzania, and H. fulvus Dejean, 1829 from Portugal.     

Phylogenetic revision of Minyomerus Horn, 1876 sec. Jansen & Franz, 2015 (Coleoptera,Curculionidae) using taxonomic concept annotations and alignments

This contribution adopts the taxonomic concept annotation and alignment approach. Accordingly, and where indicated, previous and newly inferred meanings of taxonomic names are individuated according to one specific source. Articulations among these concepts and pairwise, logically consistent alignments of original and revisionary classifications are also provided, in addition to conventional nomenclatural provenance information. A phylogenetic revision of the broad-nosed weevil genera Minyomerus Horn, 1876 sec. O’Brien & Wibmer (1982), and Piscatopus Sleeper, 1960 sec. O’Brien & Wibmer (1982) (Curculionidae [non-focal]: Entiminae [non-focal]: Tanymecini [non-focal]) is presented. Prior to this study, Minyomerus sec. O’Brien & Wibmer (1982) contained seven species, whereas the monotypic Piscatopus sec. O’Brien & Wibmer (1982) was comprised solely of Piscatopus griseus Sleeper, 1960 sec. O’Brien & Wibmer (1982). We thoroughly redescribe these recognized species-level entities and furthermore describe ten species as new to science: Minyomerus bulbifrons sec. Jansen & Franz (2015) (henceforth: [JF2015]), sp. n., Minyomerus aeriballux [JF2015], sp. n., Minyomerus cracens [JF2015], sp. n., Minyomerus gravivultus [JF2015], sp. n., Minyomerus imberbus [JF2015], sp. n., Minyomerus reburrus [JF2015], sp. n., Minyomerus politus [JF2015], sp. n., Minyomerus puticulatus [JF2015], sp. n., Minyomerus rutellirostris [JF2015], sp. n., and Minyomerus trisetosus [JF2015], sp. n. A cladistic analysis using 46 morphological characters of 22 terminal taxa (5/17 outgroup/ingroup) yielded a single most-parsimonious cladogram (L = 82, CI = 65, RI = 82). The analysis strongly supports the monophyly of Minyomerus [JF2015] with eight unreversed synapomorphies, and places Piscatopus griseus sec. O’Brien & Wibmer (1982) within the genus as sister to Minyomerus rutellirostris [JF2015]. Accordingly, Piscatopus sec. Sleeper (1960), syn. n. is changed to junior synonymy of Minyomerus [JF2015], and its sole member Piscatopus griseus sec. Sleeper (1960) is moved to Minyomerus [JF2015] as Minyomerus griseus [JF2015], comb. n. In addition, the formerly designated type Minyomerus innocuus Horn, 1876 sec. Pierce (1913), syn. n. is changed to junior synonymy of Minyomerus microps (Say, 1831) [JF2015] which has priority. The genus is widespread throughout western North America, ranging from Canada to Mexico and Baja California. Apparent patterns of interspecific diversity of exterior and genitalic morphology, varying host plant ranges, overlapping and widely extending species distributions, suggest an early origin for Minyomerus [JF2015], with a diversification that likely followed the development of North American desert biomes. Three species in the genus – i.e., Minyomerus languidus Horn, 1876 [JF2015], Minyomerus microps [JF2015], and Minyomerus trisetosus [JF2015] – are putatively considered parthenogenetic.     

Growth patterns in some indo-west-pacific seagrasses

The plastochrone interval of the rhizomes (PIR) was determined in the monopodially branching seagrasses Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenb. et Hempr. ex Aschers. (1981), Cymodocea serrulata (R.Br.) Aschers. et Magnus (1981), Syringodium isoetifolium (Aschers.) Dandy (1982), Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Aschers. (1982) and Halophila ovalis (R.Br.) Hook.f. (1982). The growth rate during 1981 was in all species, including Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers., constant during the year and the PIR amounted to 6.7 days (Cymodocea serrulata) and 3.9 days (Cymodocea rotundata). However, the PIR observed in 1982 showed in all species a unimodal pattern and a decrease during June, July and August. The PIR was 6.3 days in Halodule uninervis while an interval of 5.2 days was calculated in Syringodium isoetifolium.The growth rates of the horizontal and vertical axes (rhizomes and shoots) were correlated. A regression between the number of leaves on the shoot and the number of nodes on the rhizome resulted for most species in a linear correlation. The slopes of the calculated correlation were rather similar in the tree species with a comparable morphology: 0.44 in Cymodocea serrulata, 0.43 in Cymodocea rotundata and 0.49 in Halodule uninervis. In Syringodium isoetifolium, the longevity of the leaves increased during ageing of the shoot.The proliferation ratio (the ratio shoots/rhizome apices) was measured in all species. A maximum of 0.41 was observed in Thalassia hemprichii. This species and Cymodocea rotundata showed a unimodal pattern. In the last species, the ratio ranged from 0.03 to 0.13. The ratio was constant during the year in Cymodocea serrulata and Syringodium isoetifolium. Proliferation by means of monopodially branching of the rhizome was of little importance in Halodule uninervis. The pattern of proliferative and reiterative branching in the Cymodoceoideae is illustrated by an image of 123 days of growth in the fastest growing specimen.Most species showed growth in fronts. The expansion of monospecific seagrass fringes was monitored by repetitive mapping. The pattern of succession in subtidal meadows was determined.     

Birds are islands for parasites

Understanding the mechanisms driving the extraordinary diversification of parasites is a major challenge in evolutionary biology. Co-speciation, one proposed mechanism that could contribute to this diversity is hypothesized to result from allopatric co-divergence of host–parasite populations. We found that island populations of the Galápagos hawk (Buteo galapagoensis) and a parasitic feather louse species (Degeeriella regalis) exhibit patterns of co-divergence across variable temporal and spatial scales. Hawks and lice showed nearly identical population genetic structure across the Galápagos Islands. Hawk population genetic structure is explained by isolation by distance among islands. Louse population structure is best explained by hawk population structure, rather than isolation by distance per se, suggesting that lice tightly track the recent population histories of their hosts. Among hawk individuals, louse populations were also highly structured, suggesting that hosts serve as islands for parasites from an evolutionary perspective. Altogether, we found that host and parasite populations may have responded in the same manner to geographical isolation across spatial scales. Allopatric co-divergence is likely one important mechanism driving the diversification of parasites.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aethycteron robisoni</Emphasis> n. sp. (Monogenea: Ancyrocephalidae) from the sunburst darter, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Etheostoma mihileze</Emphasis> Mayden (Perciformes: Percidae), in Arkansas,USA

Aethycteron robisoni n. sp. is described from the sunburst darter, Etheostoma mihileze Mayden (Perciformes: Percidae), in the Arkansas River Drainage of the Ozark Region in the Central Highlands of Arkansas, USA. Aethycteron robisoni morphologically most closely resembles A. caerulei Suriano & Beverley-Burton, 1982, A. moorei (Mizelle, 1940) and A. nigrei Suriano & Beverly-Burton, 1982, by possessing a male copulatory organ with a distinct distal curvature and spiraling sheath. The haptoral sclerites of A. robisoni, with the exception of the hooks, are distinctly larger than those of the other three species. This is the first time a monogenean parasite has been reported from E. mihileze as well as the first time the genus Aethycteron Suriano & Beverley-Burton, 1982 has been reported from Arkansas, USA.     

Trichodorus petrusalberti n. sp. (Nematoda: Trichodoridae) from Rice with Additional Notes on the Morphology of T. sanniae and T. rinae

A new species in the family Trichodoridae, from the rhizosphere of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Northern Natal, South Africa, is described and illustrated. Trichodorus petrusalberti n. sp. resembles T. taylori De Waele, Mancini, Roca, and Lamberti, 1982, T. hooperi Loof, 1973, and T. complexus Rahman, Jairajpuri, and Ahmad, 1985, from which it is distinguished by the shape of the spicules. It is distinguished from the former two species by the nonthickened terminal cuticle in the males and by the shape and sclerotization of the vulval-vaginal region in lateral view in the females. Additional morphological details are given for T. sanniae Vermeulen and Heyns, 1985 and T. rinae Vermeulen and Heyns, 1985.     

Geographic distribution of halictid bees of the subfamilies Rophitinae and Nomiinae (Hymenoptera, Halictidae) in the Palaearctic

The distribution of halictid bees of the subfamilies Rophitinae and Nomiinae in the Palaearctic is analyzed based on the scheme of zoogeographic subdivision proposed by A.F. Emeljanov (1974). The species composition of the regional and subregional faunas is compared and the lists of Rophitinae and Nomiinae for these areas are given. The characteristic features of the regional faunas are discussed. The types of ranges of Rophitinae and Nomiinae in the entire Palaearctic are designated. A new replacement name Dufourea wuyanruae nom. n. is proposed for Halictoides (Halictoides) longicornis Wu, 1982 [non D. (Cephalictoides) longicornis (Warncke, 1979a)].     

Revision of the Neotropical bark mantis genus Liturgusa Saussure, 1869 (Insecta,Mantodea, Liturgusini)

The praying mantis genus Liturgusa Saussure, 1869 occurs only in Central and South America and represents the most diverse genus of Neotropical Liturgusini (Ehrmann 2002). The genus includes bark dwelling species, which live entirely on the trunks and branches of trees and run extremely fast. All species included within the genus Liturgusa are comprehensively revised with a distribution stretching from central Mexico, the island of Dominica to the southeastern regions of Brazil and southern Bolivia. All known species are redescribed to meet the standards of the new treatment of the genus (11 species). Three new genera are described including Fuga gen. n., Velox gen. n., and Corticomantis gen. n. for species previously included in Liturgusa as well as Hagiomantis. Liturgusa mesopoda Westwood, 1889 is moved to within the previously described genus Hagiomantis Audinet Serville, 1838. A total of 19 species are newly described within Liturgusa, Fuga, and Velox including L. algorei sp. n., L. bororum sp. n., L. cameroni sp. n., L. cura sp. n., L. dominica sp. n., L. fossetti sp. n., L. kirtlandi sp. n., L. krattorum sp. n., L. manausensis sp. n., L. maroni sp. n., L. milleri sp. n., L. neblina sp. n., L. purus sp. n., L. stiewei sp. n., L. tessae sp. n., L. trinidadensis sp. n., L. zoae sp. n., F. grimaldii sp. n., and V. wielandi sp. n. Four species names are synonymized: Liturgusa peruviana Giglio-Tos, 1914, syn. n. = Liturgusa nubeculosa Gerstaecker, 1889 and Hagiomantis parva Piza, 1966, syn. n., Liturgusa sinvalnetoi Piza, 1982, syn. n., and Liturgusa parva Giglio-Tos, 1914, syn. n. = Mantis annulipes Audinet Serville, 1838. Lectotypes are designated for the following two species: Liturgusa maya Saussure & Zehntner, 1894 and Fuga annulipes (Audinet Serville, 1838). A male neotype is designated for Liturgusa guyanensis La Greca, 1939. Males for eight species are described for the first time including Liturgusa cayennensis Saussure, 1869, Liturgusa lichenalis Gerstaecker, 1889, Liturgusa guyanensis La Greca, 1939, Liturgusa maya Saussure & Zehntner, 1894, Liturgusa nubeculosa Gerstaecker, 1889, Fuga annulipes (Audinet Serville, 1838), Corticomantis atricoxata (Beier, 1931), and Hagiomantis mesopoda (Westwood, 1889). The female of Fuga fluminensis (Piza, 1965) is described for the first time. Complete bibliographic histories are provided for previously described species. The spelling confusion surrounding Liturgusa/Liturgousa is resolved. Full habitus images for males and females are provided for nearly all species. Habitus and label images of type specimens are provided when possible. Diagnostic illustrations of the head and pronotum for males and females are provided for all species when possible. Illustrations of male genital structures are provided for all species for which males are known. Measurement data, including ranges and averages, are provided for males and females of all species. Combined male and female genus and species level dichotomous keys are provided with a Spanish translation. A complete table of all examined specimens lists label data, museum codes, repositories, and other specimen specific information. A KML file with all georeferenced locality records is downloadable from mantodearesearch.com for viewing in Google Earth. Natural history information is provided for species observed by the author.     

The Australian species of Lobatocreadium Madhavi, 1972, Hypocreadium Ozaki, 1936 and Dermadena Manter, 1945 (Digenea: Lepocreadiidae), parasites of marine tetraodontiform fishes

The genera Lobatocreadium, Pseudocreadium, Hypocreadium and Dermadena are redefined and host lists given. Provisional keys to species of Lobatocreadium, Hypocreadium and Dermadena are presented. The following species are described from (1) the Great Barrier Reef: Lobatocreadium exiguum from Balistapus undulatus and Sufflamen bursa; Hypocreadium cavum n. sp. from Abalistes stellatus (type-host) and Cantheschenia grandisquamis; H. grandisquamis n. sp. from Cantheschenia grandisquamis; Dermadena spatiosa n. sp. from Cantheschenia grandisquamis; and (2) southwestern Australia: D. stirlingi n. sp. from Meuschenia hippocrepis. The following new combinations are made: Lobatocreadium vitellosum (Ozaki, 1936) n. comb. (originally Leptocreadium); Hypocreadium balistes (Nagaty, 1942) n. comb. (originally Pseudocreadium); H. biminensis (Sogandares-Bernal, 1959) n. comb. (originally Pseudocreadium); H. indicum (Madhavi, 1972) n. comb. (originally Pseudocreadium); and H. galapagoensis (Manter, 1945) n. comb. (originally Pseudocreadium). Several nominal species of Pseudocreadium and Hypocreadium are considered incertae sedis.     

On the function of the ultimate legs of some Scolopendridae (Chilopoda,Scolopendromorpha)

The function of the variously shaped ultimate legs of Scolopendridae is briefly reviewed. Their function in Scolopendra heros Girard, 1853, Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1815, Scolopendra morsitans (Linnaeus, 1758), Scolopendra galapagoensis Bollman, 1889, Scolopendra hainanum Kronmüller, 2012, Scolopendra spinosissima Kraepelin, 1903 Cormocephalus aurantiipes (Newport, 1844) and Ethmostigmus trigonopodus (Leach, 1817), in which they are least specialised has been investigated. Specimens were tapped with forceps on different parts of the trunk to simulate the attack of a predator. When tapped on the first third of the trunk (near the head), the centipedes attacked the forceps with their forcipules. When tapped on the last third or the ultimate legs, they adopted a warning position, raising the ultimate legs to display the ventral and medial prefemoral spines as well as the spined coxopleural processes. In some cases the centipedes attacked the forceps with the claws of the ultimate legs by chopping down on them after lifting the legs high into the warning position. When tapped in the mid part of the trunk, the centipedes curled sideways to reach the forceps with their forcipules and ultimate legs simultaneously. Scolopendra galapagoensis not only lifted the ultimate legs into the warning position but also the last 3-4 pairs of locomotory legs, presenting their distodorsal prefemoral spines. This resembles the warning posture of some spiders. In addition to their function in warning behaviour, defensive stabbing, ritualised meeting reactions and during courtship behaviour, the ultimate legs may in addition act as hooks and perhaps be involved in species recognition. No evidence was found that the ultimate legs are used to catch prey, nor of prey or predators being held between the prefemora.