Variation in sessile microflora during biofilm formation on AISI-304 stainless steel coupons

Coupons of stainless steel type AISI-304 were exposed to the industrial cooling system of a petrochemical plant fed by seawater from the Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in order to study thein situ formation of biofilms. Bacteria, microalgae and fungi were detected on the coupons as soon as 48 h after exposure. Their respective numbers were determined at times 48, 96 and 192 h and over the following 8 weeks. Aerobic, anaerobic and sulfate-reducing bacteria were quantified according to the technique of the most probable number, and fungi by the pour plate technique. The number of microorganisms present in the forming biofilm varied over the experimental period, reaching maximal levels of 14×10¹¹ cells cm^–2, 30×10¹³ cells cm^–2, 38×10¹¹ cells cm^–2 and 63×10⁵ cells cm^–2, respectively, for aerobic bacteria, anaerobic bacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria and fungi, and the dynamics of this variation depended on the group of microorganisms.Bacillus sp,Escherichia coli, Serratia sp andPseudomonas putrefaciens were identified among the aerobic bacteria isolated. Additionally, microalgae and bacteria of the genusGallionella were also detected. Nonetheless, no evidence of corrosion was found on the stainless steel type AISI-304 coupons over the experimental period.     

Oil field microorganisms cause highly localized corrosion on chemically inhibited carbon steel

Carbon steel pipelines, a means for crude oil transportation, occasionally experience highly localized perforation caused by microorganisms. While microorganisms grown in laboratory culture tend to corrode steel specimens unevenly, they rarely inflict a corrosion morphology consistent with that of pipelines, where centimetre-sized corrosion features are randomly distributed within vast stretches of otherwise pristine metal surface. In this study, we observed that corrosion inhibitors (CIs), widely used for the control of acid gas (H₂S, CO₂) corrosion in oil fields, also affect microbial growth and activity. Inhibited carbon steel resisted biofilm formation and underwent negligible corrosion (< 0.002 mm Fe⁰ year⁻¹), despite 15 months of exposure to oil field waters harbouring a diverse microbiome. In contrast, physical scavenging of CI in these waters led to severe and highly localized corrosion (up to 0.93 mm Fe⁰ year⁻¹) underneath biofilms dominated by methanogenic archaea and sulfate-reducing bacteria. A sharp decline in CI concentration, as well as its active components, quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), correlated with microbial sulfidogenesis. CIs are ubiquitously present in oil field waters and play an underappreciated role in microbial corrosion mitigation. Physical and biological scavenging of CIs may create local differences in steel inhibition effectiveness and thus result in highly localized corrosion.     

Physiology of biofilms of thermophilic bacilli—potential consequences for cleaning

Thermophilic Bacillus species readily attached and grew on stainless steel surfaces, forming mature biofilms of >10^6.0 cells/cm² in 6 h on a surface inoculated with the bacteria. Clean stainless steel exposed only to pasteurized skim milk at 55 °C developed a mature biofilm of >10^6.0 cells/cm² within 18 h. When bacilli were inoculated onto the steel coupons, 18-h biofilms were 30 m thick. Biofilm growth followed a repeatable pattern, with a reduction in the numbers of bacteria on the surface occurring after 30 h, followed by a recovery. This reduction in numbers was associated with the production of a substance that inhibited the growth of the bacteria. Variations in the environment, including pH and molarity, affected the viability of the cells. Chemicals that attack the polysaccharide matrix of the biofilm were particularly effective in killing and removing cells from the biofilm, demonstrating the importance of polysaccharides in the persistence of these biofilms. Treatment of either the biofilm or a clean stainless steel surface with lysozyme killed biofilm cells and prevented the attachment of any bacteria exposed to the surface. This suggests that lysozyme may have potential as an alternative control method for biofilms of these bacteria.     

Effect of different salinities of a dynamic water system on biofilm formation

AISI-1020 carbon steel coupons were fixed onto a water circulation loop in order to study the effect of varying NaCl concentrations on formation of biofilms by natural populations of microorganisms. Overall, we observed a reduction in the number of bacteria attached to the metal surfaces as NaCl levels increased. At 12.85 and 80 g/l NaCl, the respective bacterial counts were: 1.7×10⁹ CFU/cm² and 7.5×10² CFU/cm² for aerobic species; 1.3×10⁴ CFU/cm² and 2.1×10 CFU/cm² for anaerobic species; and 1.8×10³ CFU/cm² and 4.6×10 CFU/cm² for sulfate-reducing species. However, the opposite trend was observed for the numbers of iron-reducing bacteria: 4.1×10⁶ CFU/cm² at 12.85 g/l NaCl and 7.5 10⁸ CFU/cm² at 80 g/l NaCl, respectively. Fungal counts remained constant throughout the experimental period. The salt concentration at which the maximum corrosion rate was observed was 35 g/l. In view of the marked loss of metal mass recorded at this salinity, AISI-1020 carbon steel proved to belong to the group of alloys less resistant to corrosion. Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology (2000) 25, 45–48. Received 07 December 1999/ Accepted in revised form 25 April 2000     

Sulfate-reducing bacterial community structure and their contribution to carbon mineralization in a wastewater biofilm growing under microaerophilic conditions

The community structure of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and the contribution of SRB to carbon mineralization in a wastewater biofilm growing under microaerophilic conditions were investigated by combining molecular techniques, molybdate inhibition batch experiments, and microelectrode measurements. A 16S rDNA clone library of bacteria populations was constructed from the biofilm sample. The 102 clones analyzed were grouped into 53 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), where the clone distribution was as follows: Cytophaga-Flexibacter-Bacteroides (41%), Proteobacteria (41%), low-G+C Gram-positive bacteria (18%), and other phyla (3%). Three additional bacterial clone libraries were also constructed from SRB enrichment cultures with propionate, acetate, and H₂ as electron donors to further investigate the differences in SRB community structure due to amendments of different carbon sources. These libraries revealed that SRB clones were phylogenetically diverse and affiliated with six major SRB genera in the delta-subclass of the Proteobacteria. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis revealed that Desulfobulbus and Desulfonema were the most abundant SRB species in this biofilm, and this higher abundance (ca. 2–4×10⁹ cells cm^–3 and 5×10⁷ filaments cm^–3, respectively) was detected in the surface of the biofilm. Microelectrode measurements showed that a high sulfate-reducing activity was localized in a narrow zone located just below the oxic/anoxic interface when the biofilm was cultured in a synthetic medium with acetate as the sole carbon source. In contrast, a broad sulfate-reducing zone was found in the entire anoxic strata when the biofilm was cultured in the supernatant of the primary settling tank effluent. This is probably because organic carbon sources diffused into the biofilm from the bulk water and an unknown amount of volatile fatty acids was produced in the biofilm. A combined approach of molecular techniques and batch experiments with a specific inhibitor (molybdate) clearly demonstrated that Desulfobulbus is a numerically important member of SRB populations and the main contributor to the oxidation of propionate to acetate in this biofilm. However, acetate was preferentially utilized by nitrate-reducing bacteria but not by acetate-utilizing SRB.     

Shewanella putrefaciens Adhesion and Biofilm Formation on Food Processing Surfaces

Laboratory model systems were developed for studying Shewanella putrefaciens adhesion and biofilm formation under batch and flow conditions. S. putrefaciens plays a major role in food spoilage and may cause microbially induced corrosion on steel surfaces. S. putrefaciens bacteria suspended in buffer adhered readily to stainless steel surfaces. Maximum numbers of adherent bacteria per square centimeter were reached in 8 h at 25°C and reflected the cell density in suspension. Numbers of adhering bacteria from a suspension containing 10⁸ CFU/ml were much lower in a laminar flow system (modified Robbins device) (reaching 10² CFU/cm²) than in a batch system (reaching 10⁷ CFU/cm²), and maximum numbers were reached after 24 h. When nutrients were supplied, S. putrefaciens grew in biofilms with layers of bacteria. The rate of biofilm formation and the thickness of the film were not dependent on the availability of carbohydrate (lactate or glucose) or on iron starvation. The number of S. putrefaciens bacteria on the surface was partly influenced by the presence of other bacteria (Pseudomonas fluorescens) which reduced the numbers of S. putrefaciens bacteria in the biofilm. Numbers of bacteria on the surface must be quantified to evaluate the influence of environmental factors on adhesion and biofilm formation. We used a combination of fluorescence microscopy (4′,6′-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining and in situ hybridization, for mixed-culture studies), ultrasonic removal of bacteria from surfaces, and indirect conductometry and found this combination sufficient to quantify bacteria on surfaces.     

Analyses of Spatial Distributions of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria and Their Activity in Aerobic Wastewater Biofilms

The vertical distribution of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in aerobic wastewater biofilms grown on rotating disk reactors was investigated by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes. To correlate the vertical distribution of SRB populations with their activity, the microprofiles of O₂, H₂S, NO₂⁻, NO₃⁻, NH₄⁺, and pH were measured with microelectrodes. In addition, a cross-evaluation of the FISH and microelectrode analyses was performed by comparing them with culture-based approaches and biogeochemical measurements. In situ hybridization revealed that a relatively high abundance of the probe SRB385-stained cells (approximately 10⁹ to 10¹⁰ cells per cm³ of biofilm) were evenly distributed throughout the biofilm, even in the oxic surface. The probe SRB660-stained Desulfobulbus spp. were found to be numerically important members of SRB populations (approximately 10⁸ to 10⁹ cells per cm³). The result of microelectrode measurements showed that a high sulfate-reducing activity was found in a narrow anaerobic zone located about 150 to 300 μm below the biofilm surface and above which an intensive sulfide oxidation zone was found. The biogeochemical measurements showed that elemental sulfur (S⁰) was an important intermediate of the sulfide reoxidation in such thin wastewater biofilms (approximately 1,500 μm), which accounted for about 75% of the total S pool in the biofilm. The contribution of an internal Fe-sulfur cycle to the overall sulfur cycle in aerobic wastewater biofilms was insignificant (less than 1%) due to the relatively high sulfate reduction rate.     

Detection ofDesulfobacter in oil field environments by non-radioactive DNA probes

Acetate-utilizing, sulfate-reducing bacteria of the genusDesulfobacter were enriched from an oilfield seawater-injection system. These bacteria were detected in enrichment culture and verified asDesulfobacter by an oligonucleotide DNA probe that targets aDesulfobacter-specific sequence of ribosomal RNA. TheseDesulfobacter produced extensive biofilm in culture and exhibited high levels of hydrogenase activity, which suggests a sessile habit and a role in the cathodic depolarization mechanism of microbially influenced corrosion. Phospholipid analyses indicated that one of the oilfield isolates ofDesulfobacter lacked the fatty acid 10 Me 16:0, which has been used as a biomarker for this genus. Desulfobacter were infrequently encountered in the oilfield systems studied, and they constituted a small portion of the total microflora at any sampling location.     

Effects of selection and fate of substrates supplied to anaerobic bacteria involved in the corrosion of pipe-line steel

Summary The corrosion of AISI C1020 carbon steel in an anoxic, marine, sulphide-containing environment was examined as a function of bacterial physiology and consortial complexity. The carbon steel was exposed to three organism;Eubacterium limosum, Desulfovibrio sp. andDesulfobacter sp. which were provided with H₂/CO₂, butanol, glucose, and acetate as carbon and electron sources. A consortium of these bacteria utilizing hydrogen gave rise to relatively high corrosion rates (5.7×10^–4 mhos cm^–2) with respect to corrosion resulting from bacteria supplied with organic electron sources (0.6–1.6×10^–4 mhos cm^–2). Disproportionation of electrons between sulphate reduction and fermentation had a significant effect on the corrosion rate in the case ofDesulfovibrio. Surface examination using scanning electron microscopy coupled with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy supported the hypothesis that the corrosion rate was controlled by the relative intactness of a ferrous sulphide film in which the bacteria were embedded.     

Microbiology of Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage Basins

Microbiological studies of spent nuclear fuel storage basins at Savannah River Site (SRS) were performed as a preliminary step to elucidate the potential for microbial-influenced corrosion (MIC) in these facilities. Total direct counts and culturable counts performed during a 2-year period indicated microbial densities of 10⁴ to 10⁷ cells/ml in water samples and on submerged metal coupons collected from these basins. Bacterial communities present in the basin transformed between 15% and 89% of the compounds present in Biolog™ plates. Additionally, the presence of several biocorrosion-relevant microbial groups (i.e., sulfate-reducing bacteria and acid-producing bacteria) was detected with commercially available test kits. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray spectra analysis of osmium tetroxide-stained coupons demonstrated the development of microbial biofilm communities on some metal coupons submerged for 3 weeks in storage basins. After 12 months, coupons were fully covered by biofilms, with some deterioration of the coupon surface evident at the microscopical level. These results suggest that, despite the oligotrophic and radiological environment of the SRS storage basins and the active water deionization treatments commonly applied to prevent electrochemical corrosion in these facilities, these conditions do not prevent microbial colonization and survival. Such microbial densities and wide diversity of carbon source utilization reflect the ability of the microbial populations to adapt to these environments. The presumptive presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria and acid-producing bacteria and the development of biofilms on submerged coupons indicated that an environment for MIC of metal components in the storage basins may occur. However, to date, there has been no indication or evidence of MIC in the basins. Basin chemistry control and corrosion surveillance programs instituted several years ago have substantially abated all corrosion mechanisms. Received: 4 April 1998 / Accepted: 7 July 1998     

Inhibiting mild steel corrosion from sulfate-reducing bacteria using antimicrobial-producing biofilms in Three-Mile-Island process water

Biofilms were used to produce gramicidin S (a cyclic decapeptide) to inhibit corrosion-causing, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). In laboratory studies these biofilms protected mild steel 1010 continuously from corrosion in the aggressive, cooling service water of the AmerGen Three-Mile-Island (TMI) nuclear plant, which was augmented with reference SRB. The growth of both reference SRB (Gram-positive Desulfosporosinus orientis and Gram-negative Desulfovibrio vulgaris) was shown to be inhibited by supernatants of the gramicidin-S-producing bacteria as well as by purified gramicidin S. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and mass loss measurements showed that the protective biofilms decreased the corrosion rate of mild steel by 2- to 10-fold when challenged with the natural SRB of the TMI process water supplemented with D. orientis or D. vulgaris. The relative corrosion inhibition efficiency was 50–90% in continuous reactors, compared to a biofilm control which did not produce the antimicrobial gramicidin S. Scanning electron microscope and reactor images also revealed that SRB attack was thwarted by protective biofilms that secrete gramicidin S. A consortium of beneficial bacteria (GGPST consortium, producing gramicidin S and other antimicrobials) also protected the mild steel.     

Biofilm formation on brass coupons exposed to a cooling system of an oil refinery

Brass coupons (70% Cu 30% Zn) were exposed to a cooling freshwater system of an oil refinery, in order to investigate susceptibility of the metal to biofilm formation. The coupons were fixed on bypasses at points which allowed the circulation of makeup, cooling and return water. The number of aerobic, anaerobic and sulfate-reducing bacteria was determined in both the planktonic and the sessile phases. Maximum bacterial concentrations were detected in the cooling water, corresponding to 2.1 ± 0.1 × 10⁶ CFU ml⁻¹ (planktonic phase) and 1.3 ± 0.2 × 10⁵ CFU cm⁻² (sessile phase) for aerobic bacteria and to 3.2 ± 0.3 × 10⁵ cells ml⁻¹ (planktonic phase) and 6.2 ± 0.7 × 10⁵ cells cm⁻² (sessile phase) for anaerobic bacteria. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) were observed only in the planktonic phase, being found in greater numbers in the return water. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis indicated that biofilm formation occurred at the three monitored sites and showed a diversity in cell morphology. Nonetheless, no evidence of corrosion was observed on the brass coupons during the experimental period. Received 22 May 1997/ Accepted in revised form 19 September 1997     

Biofilm Dynamics and Kinetics during High-Rate Sulfate Reduction under Anaerobic Conditions

The sulfate kinetics in an anaerobic, sulfate-reducing biofilm were investigated with an annular biofilm reactor. Biofilm growth, sulfide production, and kinetic constants (K_m and V_max) for the bacterial sulfate uptake within the biofilm were determined. These parameters were used to model the biofilm kinetics, and the experimental results were in good agreement with the model predictions. Typical zero-order volume rate constants for sulfate reduction in a biofilm without substrate limitation ranged from 56 to 93 μmol of SO²₄-cm⁻³ h⁻¹ at 20°C. The temperature dependence (Q₁₀) of sulfate reduction was equivalent to 3.4 at between 9 and 20°C. The measured rates of sulfate reduction could explain the relatively high sulfide levels found in sewers and wastewater treatment systems. Furthermore, it has been shown that sulfate reduction in biofilms just a few hundred micrometers thick is limited by sulfate diffusion into biofilm at concentrations below 0.5 mM. This observation might, in some cases, be an explanation for the relatively poor capacity of the sulfate-reducing bacteria to compete with the methanogenic bacteria in anaerobic wastewater treatment in submerged filters.     

Utilization of cathodically-produced hydrogen from mild steel byDesulfovibrio species with different types of hydrogenases

Summary Desulfovibrio (D.) vulgaris Hildenborough with a highly active Fe-containing periplasmic hydrogenase,D. salexigens British Guiana with a Fe–Ni–Se periplasmic hydrogenase, andD. multispirans with a Fe–Ni cytoplasmic hydrogenase utilized cathodically-produced hydrogen from mild steel as the only energy source for activity and growth. Changes on the mild steel surface occurred during growth of these bacteria. The concentration of iron sulfide, a corrosion product of mild steel, increased over time, andDesulfovibrio species had an active hydrogenase when they were grown in lactate/sulfate media. This hydrogenase may be any of the three types found in the genus,Desulfovibrio. The concentration of iron in the media affected the production and activity of the Fe-hydrogenase fromD. vulgaris Hildenborough. With an iron-limited medium, the specific activity and the total amount of the periplasmic hydrogenase was less than found with a non-iron limited media.     

Inhibiting mild steel corrosion from sulfate-reducing and iron-oxidizing bacteria using gramicidin-S-producing biofilms

A gramicidin-S-producing Bacillus brevis 18-3 biofilm was shown to reduce corrosion rates of mild steel by inhibiting both the sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfosporosinus orientis and the iron-oxidizing bacterium Leptothrix discophora SP-6. When L. discophora SP-6 was introduced along with D. orientis to a non-antimicrobial-producing biofilm control, Paenibacillus polymyxa ATCC 10401, a corrosive synergy was created and mild steel coupons underwent more severe corrosion than when only D. orientis was present, showing a 2.3-fold increase via electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and a 1.8-fold difference via mass-loss measurements. However, when a gramicidin-S-producing, protective B. brevis 18-3 biofilm was established on mild steel, the metal coupons were protected against the simultaneous attack of D. orientis and L. discophora SP-6. EIS data showed that the protective B. brevis 18-3 biofilm decreased the corrosion rate about 20-fold compared with the non-gramicidin-producing P. polymyxa ATCC 10401 biofilm control. The mass loss for the protected mild steel coupons was also significantly lower than that for the unprotected ones (4-fold decrease). Scanning electron microscope images corroborated the corrosion inhibition by the gramicidin-S-producing B. brevis biofilm on mild steel by showing that the metal surface remained untarnished, i.e., the polishing grooves were still visible after exposure to the simultaneous attack of the sulfate-reducing bacterium and the iron-oxidizing bacterium.     

In Situ Activity and Spatial Organization of Anaerobic Ammonium-Oxidizing (Anammox) Bacteria in Biofilms

We investigated autotrophic anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing (anammox) biofilms for their spatial organization, community composition, and in situ activities by using molecular biological techniques combined with microelectrodes. Results of phylogenetic analysis and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) revealed that “Brocadia”-like anammox bacteria that hybridized with the Amx820 probe dominated, with 60 to 92% of total bacteria in the upper part (<1,000 μm) of the biofilm, where high anammox activity was mainly detected with microelectrodes. The relative abundance of anammox bacteria decreased along the flow direction of the reactor. FISH results also indicated that Nitrosomonas-, Nitrosospira-, and Nitrosococcus-like aerobic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and Nitrospira-like nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) coexisted with anammox bacteria and accounted for 13 to 21% of total bacteria in the biofilms. Microelectrode measurements at three points along the anammox reactor revealed that the NH₄⁺ and NO₂⁻ consumption rates decreased from 0.68 and 0.64 μmol cm⁻² h⁻¹ at P2 (the second port, 170 mm from the inlet port) to 0.30 and 0.35 μmol cm⁻² h⁻¹ at P3 (the third port, 205 mm from the inlet port), respectively. No anammox activity was detected at P4 (the fourth port, 240 mm from the inlet port), even though sufficient amounts of NH₄⁺ and NO₂⁻ and a high abundance of anammox bacteria were still present. This result could be explained by the inhibitory effect of organic compounds derived from biomass decay and/or produced by anammox and coexisting bacteria in the upper parts of the biofilm and in the upstream part of the reactor. The anammox activities in the biofilm determined by microelectrodes reflected the overall reactor performance. The several groups of aerobic AOB lineages, Nitrospira-like NOB, and Betaproteobacteria coexisting in the anammox biofilm might consume a trace amount of O₂ or organic compounds, which consequently established suitable microenvironments for anammox bacteria.     

Structural and Functional Dynamics of Sulfate-Reducing Populations in Bacterial Biofilms

We describe the combined application of microsensors and molecular techniques to investigate the development of sulfate reduction and of sulfate-reducing bacterial populations in an aerobic bacterial biofilm. Microsensor measurements for oxygen showed that anaerobic zones developed in the biofilm within 1 week and that oxygen was depleted in the top 200 to 400 μm during all stages of biofilm development. Sulfate reduction was first detected after 6 weeks of growth, although favorable conditions for growth of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) were present from the first week. In situ hybridization with a 16S rRNA probe for SRB revealed that sulfate reducers were present in high numbers (approximately 10⁸ SRB/ml) in all stages of development, both in the oxic and anoxic zones of the biofilm. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) showed that the genetic diversity of the microbial community increased during the development of the biofilm. Hybridization analysis of the DGGE profiles with taxon-specific oligonucleotide probes showed that Desulfobulbus and Desulfovibrio were the main sulfate-reducing bacteria in all biofilm samples as well as in the bulk activated sludge. However, different Desulfobulbus and Desulfovibrio species were found in the 6th and 8th weeks of incubation, respectively, coinciding with the development of sulfate reduction. Our data indicate that not all SRB detected by molecular analysis were sulfidogenically active in the biofilm.     

The use of biocides to control sulphate‐reducing bacteria in biofilms on mild steel surfaces

Three different types of biocides, viz. formaldehyde (FM), glutaraldehyde (GA) and isothiozolone (ITZ) were used to control planktonic and sessile populations of two marine isolates of sulphate‐reducing bacteria (SRB). The influence of these biocides on the initial attachment of cells to mild steel surfaces, on subsequent biofilm formation and on the activity of hydrogenase enzymes within developed biofilms was evaluated. In the presence of biocides the rate and degree of colonization of mild steel by SRB depended on incubation time, bacterial isolate and the type of biocide used. Although SRB differed in their susceptibility to biocides, for all isolates the biofilm population was more resistant to the treatment than the planktonic population. GA showed highest efficiency in controlling planktonic and sessile SRB compared with the other two biocides. The activity of the enzyme hydrogenase measured in SRB biofilms varied between isolates and with the biocide treatment. No correlation was found between the number of sessile cells and hydrogenase activity.     

Methanogen population in a marine biofilm corrosive to mild steel

This study was conducted to analyze the methanogen population in a corrosive marine biofilm based on 16S rDNA analysis, using a PCR-cloning-sequencing approach. There were 80 methanogen clones developed from the PCR-amplified DNA extracted from the biofilm on the mild steel surface. All clones were categorized into one of five operational taxonomy units (OTUs). Two OTUs (comprising 57 clones) were affiliated with the acetotrophic Methanosaeta genus; the remaining three OTUs (23 clones) were affiliated with the hydrogenotrophic genera of Methanogenium, Methanoplanus and Methanocalculus. The hydrogenotrophic methanogens could directly cause metal corrosion through cathodic depolarization, whereas the acetotrophic methanogens grew syntrophically with corrosion-causing sulfate-reducing bacteria, as observed by fluorescent in situ hybridization, and thus contribute indirectly to metal corrosion.