Pest fencing or pest trapping: A bio‐economic analysis of cost‐effectiveness

Scofield et al. discredited the utility of pest‐exclusion fences for restoring biodiversity partly on the grounds of unquantified costs and benefits. We estimated the discounted costs of mammal exclusion fences, semi‐permeable (‘leaky’) fences and trapping, over 50 years and adjusted costs by their observed effectiveness at reducing mammalian predator abundance. We modelled data from two large predator management programmes operated by the New Zealand Department of Conservation. Using typical baseline costs and predator control efficacies (scale 0 to 1), the model predicted that an exclusion fence (efficacy 1.0) is the cheapest and most cost‐effective option for areas below about 1 ha, a leaky fence (efficacy 0.9) is most cost‐effective for 1–219 ha, and trapping (efficacy 0.6, based on 0.2 traps per hectare and a 1500‐m buffer to reduce predator reinvasion) for areas above 219 ha. This ranking was insensitive to adjustments in efficacy, but reducing efficacy of leaky fences to 0.8 or increasing trapping efficacy to 0.7 reduced the cost‐effective range of leaky fences by about 90 ha. Reducing trap maintenance costs from $300 to $100 per trap per year (e.g. using long‐life lures), or reducing trap buffer widths to 500 m, significantly elevated trapping as the most cost‐effective method for areas greater than 11–15 ha. These results were largely consistent with an ecological measure of effectiveness based on observed rates of recovery of two indigenous skink species inside exclusion fences or with trapping. The results support criticisms that exclusion fences are generally not cost‐effective, but highlight the value of considering cheaper leaky designs for small‐ to medium‐sized areas. Because this study is based largely on reductions in predator abundance, it has general application to broader biodiversity protection interests, but not to indigenous species that are highly sensitive to predation and only ever adequately protected on the mainland by exclusion fences.     

A preliminary report of the cost‐effectiveness of tooth replacement strategies for partially dentate elders

doi: 10.1111/j.1741‐2358.2012.00665.x A preliminary report of the cost‐effectiveness of tooth replacement strategies for partially dentate elders Objective: To compare the cost‐effectiveness of conventional treatment using partial dentures with functionally orientated treatment to replace missing teeth for partially dentate elders using a randomised controlled clinical trial. Background: In many countries, including the Republic of Ireland, the only publically funded treatment option offered to partially dentate older patients is a removable partial denture. However, evidence suggests that these removable prostheses are unpopular with patients and can potentially increase the risk of further dental disease and subsequent tooth loss. Materials and Methods: Fourty‐four partially dentate patients aged 65 years and older were recruited. Patients were randomly assigned to the two treatment arms of the study. The conventional treatment group received removable partial dentures to replace all missing natural teeth. The functionally orientated group was restored to a Shortened Dental Arch (SDA) of 10 occluding contacts using resin‐bonded bridgework (RBB). The costs associated with each treatment were recorded. Effectiveness was measured in terms of the impact on oral health‐related quality of life (OHRQoL) using OHIP‐14. Results: Both groups reported improvements in OHRQoL 1 month after completion of treatment. The conventional treatment group required 8.3 clinic visits as compared to 4.4 visits for the functionally orientated group. The mean total treatment time was 183 min 19 s for the conventional group vs. 124 min 8 s for the functionally orientated group. The average cost of treatment for the conventional group was 487.74 Euros compared to 356.20 Euros for the functional group. Conclusions: Functionally orientated treatment was more cost‐effective than conventional treatment in terms of treatment effect and opportunity costs to the patients’ time.     

Implications of emissions timing on the cost‐effectiveness of greenhouse gas mitigation strategies: application to forest bioenergy systems

Conventional cost‐effectiveness calculations ignore the implications of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions timing and thus may not properly inform decision‐makers in the efficient allocation of resources to mitigate climate change. To begin to address this disconnect with climate change science, we modify the conventional cost‐effectiveness approach to account for emissions timing. GHG emissions flows occurring over time are translated into an ‘Equivalent Present Emission’ based on radiative forcing, enabling a comparison of system costs and emissions on a consistent present time basis. We apply this ‘Present Cost‐Effectiveness’ method to case studies of biomass‐based electricity generation (biomass co‐firing with coal, biomass cogeneration) to evaluate implications of forest carbon trade‐offs on the cost‐effectiveness of emission reductions. Bioenergy production from forest biomass can reduce forest carbon stocks, an immediate emissions source that contributes to atmospheric greenhouse gases. Forest carbon impacts thereby lessen emission reductions in the near‐term relative to the assumption of biomass ‘carbon neutrality’, resulting in higher costs of emission reductions when emissions timing is considered. In contrast, conventional cost‐effectiveness approaches implicitly evaluate strategies over an infinite analytical time horizon, underestimating nearer term emissions reduction costs and failing to identify pathways that can most efficiently contribute to climate change mitigation objectives over shorter time spans (e.g. up to 100 years). While providing only a simple representation of the climate change implications of emissions timing, the Present Cost‐Effectiveness method provides a straightforward approach to assessing the cost‐effectiveness of emission reductions associated with any climate change mitigation strategy where future GHG reductions require significant initial capital investment or increase near‐term emissions. Timing is a critical factor in determining the attractiveness of any investment; accounting for emissions timing can better inform decisions related to the merit of alternative resource uses to meet near‐, mid‐, and long‐term climate change mitigation objectives.     

Review and Meta‐analysis of Pharmacotherapy for Binge‐eating Disorder

This study evaluated available controlled treatment studies to determine utility of pharmacotherapy for binge‐eating disorder (BED). The authors identified randomized placebo‐controlled trials testing pharmacotherapy‐only treatments and controlled trials testing pharmacotherapy with psychotherapy treatments. Meta‐analysis was performed on placebo‐controlled trials with data for attrition, remission, and weight loss. Qualitative review was performed on remaining controlled treatment literature. A total of 33 studies were considered of which 14 studies with a total of 1,279 patients were included in the meta‐analysis of pharmacotherapy‐only treatment and 8 studies with a total of 683 patients were included in the qualitative review of pharmacotherapy combined with psychotherapy interventions. No evidence suggested significant differences between medication and placebo for attrition. Evidence suggested that pharmacological treatments have a clinically significant advantage over placebo for achieving short‐term remission from binge eating (48.7% vs. 28.5%) and for weight loss, although weight losses are not substantial. No data exist to allow evaluation of longer‐term effects of pharmacotherapy‐only treatment for BED. Combining medications with psychotherapy interventions failed to significantly enhance binge outcomes, although specific medications (orlistat, topiramate) enhanced weight losses achieved with cognitive behavioral therapy and behavioral weight loss. In summary, BED patients can be advised that certain pharmacotherapies may enhance likelihood of stopping binge eating short term, but that longer‐term effects are unknown. Although some weight loss may occur, it is unlikely to be substantial with available medications. Combining medications with cognitive or behavioral treatments is unlikely to enhance binge outcomes, but specific medications (orlistat, topiramate) may enhance weight losses, albeit modestly.     

Patterns of livestock depredation and cost‐effectiveness of fortified livestock enclosures in northern Tanzania

Human–carnivore conflicts and retaliatory killings contribute to carnivore populations' declines around the world. Strategies to mitigate conflicts have been developed, but their efficacy is rarely assessed in a randomized case–control design. Further, the economic costs prevent the adoption and wide use of conflict mitigation strategies by pastoralists in rural Africa. We examined carnivore (African lion [Panthera leo], leopard [Panthera pardus], spotted hyena [Crocuta crocuta], jackal [Canis mesomelas], and cheetah [Acinonyx jubatus]) raids on fortified (n = 45, total 631 monthly visits) and unfortified (traditional, n = 45, total 521 monthly visits) livestock enclosures (“bomas”) in northern Tanzania. The study aimed to (a) assess the extent of retaliatory killings of major carnivore species due to livestock depredation, (b) describe the spatiotemporal characteristics of carnivore raids on livestock enclosures, (c) analyze whether spatial covariates influenced livestock depredation risk in livestock enclosures, and (d) examine the cost‐effectiveness of livestock enclosure fortification. Results suggest that (a) majority of boma raids by carnivores were caused by spotted hyenas (nearly 90% of all raids), but retaliatory killings mainly targeted lions, (b) carnivore raid attempts were rare at individual households (0.081 raid attempts/month in fortified enclosures and 0.102 raid attempts/month in unfortified enclosures), and (c) spotted hyena raid attempts increased in the wet season compared with the dry season, and owners of fortified bomas reported less hyena raid attempts than owners of unfortified bomas. Landscape and habitat variables tested, did not strongly drive the spatial patterns of spotted hyena raids in livestock bomas. Carnivore raids varied randomly both spatially (village to village) and temporally (year to year). The cost‐benefit analysis suggest that investing in boma fortification yielded positive net present values after two to three years. Thus, enclosure fortification is a cost‐effective strategy to promote coexistence of carnivores and humans.     

A risk adjusted cost‐effectiveness analysis of alternative models of nurse involvement in obesity management in primary care

Objective:

Controlled evaluations are subject to uncertainty regarding their replication in the real world, particularly around systems of service provision. Using routinely collected data, we undertook a risk adjusted cost‐effectiveness (RAC‐E) analysis of alternative applied models of primary health care for the management of obese adult patients. Models were based on the reported level of involvement of practice nurses (registered or enrolled nurses working in general practice) in the provision of clinical‐based activities.

Design and Methods:

Linked, routinely collected clinical data describing clinical outcomes (weight, BMI, and obesity‐related complications) and resource use (primary care, pharmaceutical, and hospital resource use) were collected. Potential confounders were controlled for using propensity weighted regression analyses.

Results:

Relative to low level involvement of practice nurses in the provision of clinical‐based activities to obese patients, high level involvement was associated with lower costs and better outcomes (more patients losing weight, and larger mean reductions in BMI). Excluding hospital costs, high level practice nurse involvement was associated with slightly higher costs. Incrementally, the high level model gets one additional obese patient to lose weight at an additional cost of $6,741, and reduces mean BMI by an additional one point at an additional cost of $563 (upper 95% confidence interval $1,547).

Conclusion:

Converted to quality adjusted life year (QALY) gains, the results provide a strong indication that increased involvement of practice nurses in clinical activities is associated with additional health benefits that are achieved at reasonable additional cost. Dissemination activities and incentives are required to encourage general practices to better integrate practice nurses in the active provision of clinical services.     

Randomized trial of a multifaceted commercial weight loss program

Objective: To test whether a commercial weight loss program promotes greater weight loss in overweight or obese women compared with control conditions and to describe the effect on plasma lipids, carotenoids, hormones, and fitness. Research Methods and Procedures: Overweight or obese women were randomized to commercial weight loss program or control conditions (n = 35 each). Results: At randomization, participants were 41.1 (11.4) (mean [standard deviation]) years, BMI 34.0 (3.5) kg/m², and weight 92.0 (11.1) kg. At 6 months, change in weight by intent‐to‐treat (ITT) analysis was ?7.2 (6.7) kg and ?7.8% (7.2%) in the intervention group vs. ?0.3 (3.9) kg and ?0.3% (4.5%) in the control group (n = 35 for each; p < 0.01). One‐year ITT analysis revealed significantly greater change in weight, percent weight, BMI, and waist and hip circumferences in the intervention vs. control group. Completers at 1 year exhibited change in weight of ?7.3 (10.4) kg for the intervention group (n = 32) vs. ?0.7 (5.6) kg for controls (n = 33) (p < 0.01), and ?7.8% (11.1%) weight change for the intervention group vs. ?0.7% (6.2%) for controls (p < 0.01). High‐density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol concentration increased significantly in the intervention group. Fasting serum insulin decreased in the intervention but increased in the control group at 6 months (p < 0.01), remaining different at 1 year (p = 0.05). Discussion: The commercial program successfully facilitated weight loss, which was notably maintained at 1 year, and promoted favorable changes in plasma lipid and hormone concentrations.     

Meta‐analysis of genome‐wide association from genomic prediction models

Genome‐wide association (GWA) studies based on GBLUP models are a common practice in animal breeding. However, effect sizes of GWA tests are small, requiring larger sample sizes to enhance power of detection of rare variants. Because of difficulties in increasing sample size in animal populations, one alternative is to implement a meta‐analysis (MA), combining information and results from independent GWA studies. Although this methodology has been used widely in human genetics, implementation in animal breeding has been limited. Thus, we present methods to implement a MA of GWA, describing the proper approach to compute weights derived from multiple genomic evaluations based on animal‐centric GBLUP models. Application to real datasets shows that MA increases power of detection of associations in comparison with population‐level GWA, allowing for population structure and heterogeneity of variance components across populations to be accounted for. Another advantage of MA is that it does not require access to genotype data that is required for a joint analysis. Scripts related to the implementation of this approach, which consider the strength of association as well as the sign, are distributed and thus account for heterogeneity in association phase between QTL and SNPs. Thus, MA of GWA is an attractive alternative to summarizing results from multiple genomic studies, avoiding restrictions with genotype data sharing, definition of fixed effects and different scales of measurement of evaluated traits.     

Corporate Carbon and Financial Performance: A Meta‐analysis

We use meta‐analytical techniques to address the question“When does it pay to be green?” Existing meta‐studies in this research field cover a range of ecological issues and synthesize a variety of environmental performance measurements. This precludes a detailed examination of how differences in measurement approaches account for variations in empirical results. In order to conduct such an examination, we focus on only one ecological issue, climate change, and one particular operational performance dimension: corporate carbon performance as expressed by a firm's level of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission equivalents. Our sample comprises 68 estimations from 32 empirical studies, covering a total of 101,775 observations. In addition to our examination of the causal relationship, we analyze whether differences in operationalizations of carbon performance and financial performance predetermine empirical outcomes. The meta‐analytic findings indicate that carbon emissions vary inversely with financial performance, indicating that good carbon performance is generally positively related to superior financial performance. The results show that relative emissions are more likely to produce statistically significant results than absolute emissions. Furthermore, market‐based measures of financial performance are more positively related to carbon performance than accounting‐based measures. We conclude that measurement characteristics, which were not analyzed in detail by previous meta‐studies, may present a great source of cross‐study variability.     

Seed mix design and first year management influence multifunctionality and cost‐effectiveness in prairie reconstruction

Agricultural intensification continues to diminish many ecosystem services in the North American Corn Belt. Conservation programs may be able to combat these losses more efficiently by developing initiatives that attempt to balance multiple ecological benefits. In this study, we examine how seed mix design and first year management influence three ecosystem services commonly provided by tallgrass prairie reconstructions (erosion control, weed resistance, and pollinator resources). We established research plots with three seed mixes, with and without first year mowing. The grass‐dominated “Economy” mix had 21 species and a 3:1 grass‐to‐forb seeding ratio. The forb‐dominated “Pollinator” mix had 38 species and a 1:3 grass‐to‐forb seeding ratio. The grass:forb balanced “Diversity” mix, which was designed to resemble regional prairie remnants, had 71 species and a 1:1 grass‐to‐forb ratio. To assess ecosystem services, we measured native stem density, cover, inflorescence production, and floral richness from 2015 to 2018. The Economy mix had high native cover and stem density, but produced few inflorescences and had low floral richness. The Pollinator mix had high inflorescence production and floral richness, but also had high bare ground and weed cover. The Diversity mix had high inflorescence production and floral richness (comparable to the Pollinator mix) and high native cover and stem density (comparable to the Economy mix). First year mowing accelerated native plant establishment and inflorescence production, enhancing the provisioning of ecosystem services during the early stages of a reconstruction. Our results indicate that prairie reconstructions with thoughtfully designed seed mixes can effectively address multiple conservation challenges.     

Withholding and withdrawing treatment for cost‐effectiveness reasons: Are they ethically on par?

In healthcare priority settings, early access to treatment before reimbursement decisions gives rise to problems of whether negative decisions for cost‐effectiveness reasons should result in withdrawing treatment, already accessed by patients. Among professionals there seems to be a strong attitude to distinguish between withdrawing and withholding treatment, viewing the former as ethically worse. In this article the distinction between withdrawing and withholding treatment for reasons of cost effectiveness is explored by analysing the doing/allowing distinction, different theories of justice, consequentialist and virtue perspectives. The authors do not find any strong reasons for an intrinsic difference, but do find some reasons for a consequentialist difference, given present attitudes. However, overall, such a difference does not, all things considered, provide a convincing reason against withdrawal, given the greater consequentialist gain of using cost‐effective treatment. As a result, patients should be properly informed when given early access to treatment, that such treatment can be later withdrawn following a negative reimbursement decision.     

Meta‐analysis of anthropogenic habitat disturbance effects on animal‐mediated seed dispersal

Anthropogenic habitat disturbance is a strong biodiversity change driver that compromises not only the species persistence but also the ecological interactions in which they are involved. Even though seed dispersal is a key interaction involved in the recruitment of many tree species and in consequence critical for biodiversity maintenance, studies assessing the effect of different anthropogenic disturbance drivers on this interaction have not been performed under a meta‐analytical framework. We assessed the way habitat fragmentation and degradation processes affect species diversity (abundance and species richness) and interaction rates (i.e., fruit removal and visitation rates) of different groups of seed‐disperser species at a global scale. We obtained 163 case studies from 37 articles. Results indicate that habitat degradation had a negative effect on seed‐disperser animal diversity, whereas habitat fragmentation had a negative effect on interaction rates. Birds and insects were more sensitive in terms of their diversity, whereas mammals showed a negative effect on interaction rates. Regarding habitat, both fragmentation and degradation had a negative effect on seed‐disperser animal diversity only in temperate habitats, and negative effects on interaction rates in tropical and temperate habitats. Our results indicate that the impact of human disturbance on seed‐disperser species and interactions is not homogeneous. On the contrary, the magnitude of effects seems to be dependent on the type of disturbance, taxonomic group under assessment, and geographical region where the human impact occurs.