mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe-and their genetic relationships to other African populations

The mtDNA variation of 74 Khoisan-speaking individuals (Kung and Khwe) from Schmidtsdrift, in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, was examined by high-resolution RFLP analysis and control region (CR) sequencing. The resulting data were combined with published RFLP haplotype and CR sequence data from sub-Saharan African populations and then were subjected to phylogenetic analysis to deduce the evolutionary relationships among them. More than 77% of the Kung and Khwe mtDNA samples were found to belong to the major mtDNA lineage, macrohaplogroup L* (defined by a HpaI site at nucleotide position 3592), which is prevalent in sub-Saharan African populations. Additional sets of RFLPs subdivided macrohaplogroup L* into two extended haplogroups-L1 and L2-both of which appeared in the Kung and Khwe. Besides revealing the significant substructure of macrohaplogroup L* in African populations, these data showed that the Biaka Pygmies have one of the most ancient RFLP sublineages observed in African mtDNA and, thus, that they could represent one of the oldest human populations. In addition, the Kung exhibited a set of related haplotypes that were positioned closest to the root of the human mtDNA phylogeny, suggesting that they, too, represent one of the most ancient African populations. Comparison of Kung and Khwe CR sequences with those from other African populations confirmed the genetic association of the Kung with other Khoisan-speaking peoples, whereas the Khwe were more closely linked to non-Khoisan-speaking (Bantu) populations. Finally, the overall sequence divergence of 214 African RFLP haplotypes defined in both this and an earlier study was 0.364%, giving an estimated age, for all African mtDNAs, of 125,500-165,500 years before the present, a date that is concordant with all previous estimates derived from mtDNA and other genetic data, for the time of origin of modern humans in Africa.     

Droseraceae germination patterns and their taxonomic significance

The Droseraceae exhibit a range of"germination patterns which are of possible taxonomic usefulness at the sectional and higher levels. Three patterns were observed in the family: phanerocotylar ( Drosera subgen. Drosera and Regia ); cryptocotylar (subgen. Ergaleium and Rorella ); and a new category, hemi-cryptocotylar, where both cotyledon apices remain in the seed coat, but the remainder emerges forming a photosynthetic cotyledon loop ( Dionaea, Drosophyllum and Drosera adelae ). Subgenus Drosera , especially sect. Drosera , is heterogenous for germination, and other features, with Drosera indica , sect. Lasiocephala and D. neocaledonica anomalous on current placements, and in need of further study. Conversely, the merger of sects Psycophila and Stelogyne and subgenl Ptycnostigma with subgen. Drosera sect. Drosera is supported by their germination features. Further studies are needed to determine the significance of environmental effects on the germination characteristics, although because the results of this study largely agree with recent morphological and molecular studies, this suggests that germination characteristics are useful at the sectional level, potentially providing additional characters for phylogenetic investigations within the Droseraceae.     

Historical biogeographical patterns of the species of Bursera (Burseraceae) and their taxonomic implications

Aim The plant genus Bursera, with 104 species of trees and shrubs, has been used as a model for biogeographical analyses because of its high species richness and large number of endemic species. The biogeographical patterns of Bursera and their implications for its phylogenetic classification are reviewed in order that some hypotheses on the historical biogeography of tropical Mexico can be proposed. Location Bursera is found in the south‐western USA, most of Mexico, mainly below 1700 m elevation in tropical forests, with some species in xeric shrublands, diversifying along the Pacific slope, Central America, and north‐western South America. A few species occur on the Galapagos and Revillagigedo archipelagos, some of which are endemics, whereas in the Antilles species are distributed extensively, with several endemics in the Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola. Methods Data from specimens in herbaria and the literature were used to construct a matrix of 104 species in 160 areas. Distributional patterns of the species of Bursera were inferred applying track analysis, parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE), and Brooks parsimony analysis (BPA). Results Track analysis revealed four individual tracks: (1) a circum‐Caribbean track, comprising species of the Bursera simaruba species group; (2) an Antillean track, including species that have been transferred to Commiphora based on their pollen traits; (3) a Mexican Pacific track, including species of the B. fragilis, B. microphylla, and B. fagaroides species groups, called ‘cuajiotes’; and (4) a Neotropical Pacific track, including the two species groups assigned to section Bullockia, in which the individual track of the Bursera copallifera species group is nested within the track of the B. glabrifolia species group. The four tracks overlap in a node in the Mexican Pacific slope, where they are highly diversified. PAE allowed us to identify 22 areas of endemism: 12 in Mexico (11 along the Mexican Pacific slope), six in the Antilles, two in Central America, one in South America, and one in the Galapagos. The general area cladogram obtained by BPA has two main clades: one includes the greater Antilles; and the other, 12 Mexican areas of endemism. Main conclusions Bursera fragilis, B. microphylla, and B. fagaroides species groups can be treated together as a new section within Bursera, sect. Quaxiotea, because they are segregated from the other groups of sect. Bursera based on morphological, anatomical, molecular and geographical evidence.     

Variations in call and morphology in male water frogs: taxonomic and evolutionary implications

In Anurans, the specific mate recognition system (SMRS), which contributes to prezygotic isolation, is mainly based on morphological and call features. This is why such criteria are used by zoologists for taxonomic identification. In hybridogenetic water frogs (Rana ridibunda, R. lessonae, R. perezi, R. kl. grafi and R. kl. esculenta), hybridization opens up the question of the efficiency of these criteria for taxon identification and of the specific recognition system in this context. Variation in both morphological and call features revealed both significant mean differences among taxa but also large overlapping among individuals belonging to different taxa. Thus, using call or morphometrical features in order to identify water frogs may be hazardous. Moreover, species differ poorly in their specific mate recognition system, facilitating hybridization events, and therefore suggesting that postzygotic mechanisms may be prevalent over prezygotic mechanisms.     

Audio–vocal interactions during vocal communication in squirrel monkeys and their neurobiological implications

Several strategies have evolved in the vertebrate lineage to facilitate signal transmission in vocal communication. Here, I present a mechanism to facilitate signal transmission in a group of communicating common squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus sciureus). Vocal onsets of a conspecific affect call initiation in all other members of the group in less than 100 ms. The probability of vocal onsets in a range of 100 ms after the beginning of a vocalization of another monkey was significantly decreased compared to the mean probability of call onsets. Additionally, the probability for vocal onsets of conspecifics was significantly increased just a few hundreds of milliseconds after call onset of others. These behavioral data suggest neural mechanisms that suppress vocal output just after the onset of environmental noise, such as vocalizations of conspecifics, and increase the probability of call initiation of group mates shortly after. These findings add new audio–vocal behaviors to the known strategies that modulate signal transmission in vocal communication. The present study will guide future neurobiological studies that explore how the observed audio–vocal behaviors are implemented in the monkey brain.     

Iridoid glucosides substitution patterns inVerbenaceae and their taxonomic implication

The familiar limits ofVerbenaceae are controversial, ranging from a sensu lato arrangement of seven subfamilies until a sharply defined sensu stricto group consisting of only some genera from subfam.Verbenoideae. Iridoid contents of genera belonging toVerbenaceae s. l. were examined through a cladistic analysis, using outgroup analysis to evaluate character polarity within the ingroup. The cladogram obtained shows the distribution of the species according to their iridoid content.     

Chromosome numbers and their taxonomic implications in the genusPoa of Japan

As part of the work leading to a taxonomic revision ofPoa of Japan, chromosome numbers of nearly all indigenous species of JapanesePoa, together with those of some putative interspecific hybrids, were examined. The following chromosome numbers were found:Poa annua, 2n=28;P. crassinervis, 2m=28;P. acroleuca, 2n=28;P. hisauchii, 2n=28;P. nipponica, 2n=28;P. crassinervis, 2n=28;P. acroleuca, 2n=35;P. tuberifera, 2n=28;P. fauriei, 2n=28;P. radula, 2n=42;P. hakusanensis, 2n=70;P. hayachinensis, 2n=42;P. malacantha var.shinanoana, 2n=63≈98;P. yatsugatakensis, 2n=ca. 71≈74, 77;P. sachalinensis, 2n=63, ca. 64, ca. 74;P. matsumurae, 2n=28;P. ogamontana, 2n=42;P. sphondylodes, 2n=28;P. viridula, 2n=42, 49, 56;P. nemoralis, 2n=70;P. glauca, 2n=42, 49, 56;P. eminens, 2n=42. It became clear that information obtained from chromosome counts is quite helpful in clarifying species boundaries in several species aggregates, such as thePoa acroleuca-hisauchii-nipponica aggregate. Results of the examination of morphological features of the voucher specimens in various species aggregates with taxonomic difficulties were reported, and the needs of some amendments for the species delimitation appearing in current floristic manuals were pointed out. A summary of chromosome counts so far made for JapanesePoa was tabulated. ThePoa flora of Japan characteristically lacked diploid plants.     

Peptidoglycan types of bacterial cell walls and their taxonomic implications

[This corrects the article on p. 409 in vol. 36.].     

Land management implications for ecosystem services in a South African rangeland

In South Africa, restoration and sustainable management of historically overgrazed and degraded rangelands are promoted to increase biodiversity and ecosystem service provision. This study evaluates different land management scenarios in terms of ecosystem services in a South African rangeland, the Baviaanskloof catchment. As measured data were limited, we used simple models to quantify and map the effect of the different combination of agricultural, nature conservation and restoration practices on multiple ecosystem services. The land management scenarios were evaluated against management targets set for individual ecosystem services. Results highlight how the provision of ecosystem services is related to land management as unmanaged, pristine ecosystems provide a different mix of ecosystem services than ecosystems recently restored or managed as grazing lands. Results also indicate that historically overgrazed lands provide no forage, may retain 40% less sediment and have 38% lower biodiversity, while providing 60% more fuel wood and supplying two and half times more water (i.e. retaining less water), than pristine or restored lands. We conclude that a combination of light grazing, low input agriculture, nature conservation and restoration is the best for the sufficient provision of multiple ecosystem services. Applying such mixed management would improve biodiversity, ecotourism and maintain forage production and regulating services on farmers’ land. This management option also fits into and further optimizes local decision-makers’ vision regarding the future management of the area.     

Distribution of isoprenoid quinone structural types in bacteria and their taxonomic implications

[This corrects the article on p. 318 in vol. 45.].     

Spatial analysis of taxonomic and genetic patterns and their potential for understanding evolutionary histories

Aim The aim of this research is to develop and investigate methods for the spatial analysis of diversity based on genetic and taxonomic units of difference. We use monophyletic groups of species to assess the potential for these diversity indices to elucidate the geographical components of macro‐scaled evolutionary processes. Location The range occupied by Pultenaea species in temperate and sub‐tropical eastern Australia, extending from western South Australia (133° E–32° S) to Tasmania (146° E–43° S) to coastal central Queensland (148° E–20° S). Methods We applied a series of both spatially explicit and spatially implicit analyses to explore the nature of diversity patterns in the genus Pultenaea, Fabaceae. We first analysed the eastern species as a whole and then the phylogenetic groups within them. We delineated patterns of endemism and biotic (taxon) regions that have been traditionally circumscribed in biogeographical studies of taxa. Centres of endemism were calculated using corrected weighted endemism at a range of spatial scales. Biotic regions were defined by comparing the similarity of species assemblages of grid cells using the Jaccard index and clustering similar cells using hierarchical clustering. On the basis that genetically coherent areas were likely to be more evolutionary informative than species patterns, genetic indices of similarity and difference were derived. A matrix of similarity distances between taxa was generated based on the number of shared informative characters of two sections of trnL‐F and ndhF chloroplast nuclear regions. To identify genetically similar areas, we clustered cells using the mean genetic similarities of the species contained within each pair of cells. Measures of the mean genetic similarity of species in areas were delineated using a geographically local multi‐scalar approach. Resultant patterns of genetic diversity are interpreted in relation to theories of the evolutionary relationships between species and species groups. Results Centres of Pultenaea endemism were defined, those of clades 1 congruent with the spatially separated centres of clades 2 and 3. The taxonomic classification analysis defined cells with shared groups of species, which in some cases clustered when plotted in geographic space, defining biotic regions. In some instances the distribution of biotic regions was congruent with centres of endemism, however larger scale groupings were also apparent. In clade 1 one set of species was replaced by another along the extent of the range, with some connectivity between some geographically disjunct regions due to the presence of widespread species. In the combined analysis of clade 2 and 3 species the major biotic (taxonomic) groups with geographic coherence were defined by species in the respective clades, representing the geographic separation of these clades. However distinctive biotic regions within these main groupings of clades 2 and 3 were also apparent. Clustering cells using the mean genetic similarities of the species contained within each pair of cells indicated that some of the taxonomically defined biotic boundaries were the result of changes in composition of closely related species. This was most apparent in clades 1 and 2 where most cells were highly genetically similar. In clade 3 genetically distinct groups remained and were in part defined by sister taxa with disjunct distributions. Gradients in mean genetic similarity became more apparent from small to larger scales of analysis. At larger scales of analysis, regions of different levels of genetic diversity were delineated. Regions with highest diversity levels (lowest level of similarity) often represented regions where the ranges of phylogenetically distinctive species intergraded. Main conclusions The combined analysis of diversity, phylogeny and geography has potential to reveal macro‐scaled evolutionary patterns from which evolutionary processes may be inferred. The spatial genetic diversity indices developed in this study contribute new methods for identifying coherent evolutionary units in the landscape, which overcome some of the limitations of using taxonomic data, and from which the role of geography in evolutionary processes can be tested. We also conclude that a multiple‐index approach to diversity pattern analysis is useful, especially where patterns may be the result of a long history of different environmental changes and related evolutionary events. The analysis contributes to the knowledge of large‐scale diversity patterns of Pultenaea which has relevance for the assessment of the conservation status of the genus.     

Reproductive behavioral changes during the ovarian cycle of lesser bushbabies (Galago moholi) in captivity.

Behavioral patterns were quantified in seven heterosexual lesser bushbaby (Galago moholi) pairs during the estrous cycle to determine the relative significance of behavioral and nonbehavioral components of female sexuality in mate attraction. Increases in the occurrence of several male behaviors indicating female attractiveness were initiated during vaginal swelling when the female was sexually nonreceptive. Female behavioral estrus, as indicated by intromission, was confined to a portion of vaginal opening coinciding with proestrous and vaginal estrous smears. Female attractiveness was maintained for much of the period of vaginal opening, whereas female receptivity ended a day or two earlier than attractiveness. Female receptive and proceptive behaviors were not well defined or extensive, and few female behaviors exhibited significant changes during the cycle. Scent-marking behaviors, such as urine washes, and male grooms, were generally elevated outside the behavioral estrous period. In G. moholi, male sexual arousal appears to be elicited primarily by female attractiveness, while behavioral components of female sexuality appear to be less important in influencing mate attraction.     

Assessing the taxonomic resolution of southern African trapdoor spiders (Araneae: Ctenizidae; Cyrtaucheniidae; Idiopidae) and implications for their conservation

Taxonomic classifications simultaneously represent hypotheses of taxon identity and relationships to taxonomists, and real, unchanging entities to users of taxonomic information. Taxonomic changes, while representing scientific progress, can be a source of frustration for users. A method for assessing confidence in the taxonomy of a group of organisms would assist users of the taxonomy. A method is presented for determining the degree of development of a taxonomy, a concept termed ‘taxonomic resolution’. The method was applied to six groups of southern African mygalomorph trapdoor spiders, namely Stasimopus Simon 1892 (Ctenizidae Thorell 1877), Ancylotrypa Simon 1889 (Cyrtaucheniidae Simon 1889), four genera of Idiopidae Simon 1889 assessed as a single group, Galeosoma Purcell 1903, the families Migidae Simon 1889 and Microstigmatidae Roewer 1942, and the burrowing scorpion genus Opistophthalmus C. L. Koch 1837 (Scorpionidae Latreille 1802). The method was based on the assumption that species delimitation in a group of organisms, the taxonomy of which is based on morphological characters, depends on whether the sample of material examined is adequate for assessing variation in those characters. Five assessment criteria were identified and scored for a group of species using the taxonomic literature. Estimates of the number of species remaining to be discovered and described in each group were also included in the assessment. The results obtained for the trapdoor spiders ranged from 15 to 29%, indicating a potentially significant degree of uncertainty in the taxonomy. Results for Migidae and Microstigmatidae were 51 and 78% respectively, whereas the result for Opistophthalmus was 93%. The applied value of a measure of taxonomic resolution, the limitations of the method, and a strategy for developing a more generally applicable method are discussed.     

Methylated flavonoids from cistus ladanifer and cistuspalhinhae and their taxonomic implications

Three methylated kaempferol and two methylated apigenin derivatives were identified in the leaf resins of Cistus ladanifer and C. palhinhae. The two species produced identical secreted flavonoids which supports their close affinity based on morphological similarities.     

Camouflage patterns in Nautilus, and their implications for cephalopod paleobiology

Cowen, R., Gertman, R. & Wiggett, Gail: Camouflage patterns in Nautilus , and their implications for cephalopod paleobiology.
Formal analysis of the pigment patterns of adult Nautilus shows that they are perfectly camouflaged for life in open water. But because of their accretionary growth pattern, juveniles are not fully camouflaged for open water: this supports previous suggestions that young Nautilus are benthonic. The principles of camouflage are used to re-assess some facets of cephalopod paleobiology. The life orientation of some early cyrtocones is re-interpreted. 'Ornament' on ammonoids is seen as camouflage structure, and we infer photic-nektonic, photic-benthonic, and aphotic habitats for three major morphological groups of ammonites. Sexual dimorphism in ammonites was probably accompanied by sexual separation in habitat, except for a short (annual) mating season. This is not inconsistent with modern cephalopod biology.     

Occurrence patterns of Afrotropical ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in the climate space are not correlated with their taxonomic relationships

Foci of tick species occur at large spatial scales. They are intrinsically difficult to detect because the effect of geographical factors affecting conceptual influence of climate gradients. Here we use a large dataset of occurrences of ticks in the Afrotropical region to outline the main associations of those tick species with the climate space. Using a principal components reduction of monthly temperature and rainfall values over the Afrotropical region, we describe and compare the climate spaces of ticks in a gridded climate space. The dendrogram of distances among taxa according to occurrences in the climate niche is used to draw functional groups, or clusters of species with similar occurrences in the climate space, as different from morphologically derived (taxonomical) groups. We aim to further define the drivers of species richness and endemism at such a grid as well as niche similarities (climate space overlap) among species. Groups of species, as defined from morphological traits alone, are uncorrelated with functional clusters. Taxonomically related species occur separately in the climate gradients. Species belonging to the same functional group share more niche among them than with species in other functional groups. However, niche equivalency is also low for species within the same taxonomic cluster. Thus, taxa evolving from the same lineage tend to maximize the occupancy of the climate space and avoid overlaps with other species of the same taxonomic group. Richness values are drawn across the gradient of seasonal variation of temperature, higher values observed in a portion of the climate space with low thermal seasonality. Richness and endemism values are weakly correlated with mean values of temperature and rainfall. The most parsimonious explanation for the different taxonomic groups that exhibit common patterns of climate space subdivision is that they have a shared biogeographic history acting over a group of ancestrally co-distributed organisms.