Calicivirus Inactivation by Nonionizing (253.7-Nanometer-Wavelength [UV]) and Ionizing (Gamma) Radiation

Noroviruses (previously Norwalk-like viruses) are the most common viral agents associated with food- and waterborne outbreaks of gastroenteritis. In the absence of culture methods for noroviruses, animal caliciviruses were used as model viruses to study inactivation by nonionizing (253.7-nm-wavelength [UV]) and ionizing (gamma) radiation. Here, we studied the respiratory feline calicivirus (FeCV) and the presumed enteric canine calicivirus (CaCV) and compared them with the well-studied bacteriophage MS2. When UV irradiation was used, a 3-log₁₀ reduction was observed at a fluence of 120 J/m² in the FeCV suspension and at a fluence of 200 J/m² for CaCV; for the more resistant phage MS2 there was a 3-log₁₀ reduction at a fluence of 650 J/m². Few or no differences were observed between levels of UV inactivation in high- and low-protein-content virus stocks. In contrast, ionizing radiation could readily inactivate MS2 in water, and there was a 3-log₁₀ reduction at a dose of 100 Gy, although this did not occur when the phage was diluted in high-protein-content stocks of CaCV or FeCV. The low-protein-content stocks showed 3-log₁₀ reductions at a dose of 500 Gy for FeCV and at a dose of 300 for CaCV. The inactivation rates for both caliciviruses with ionizing and nonionizing radiation were comparable but different from the inactivation rates for MS2. Although most FeCV and CaCV characteristics, such as overall particle and genome size and structure, are similar, the capsid sequences differ significantly, making it difficult to predict human norovirus inactivation. Adequate management of UV and gamma radiation processes for virus inactivation should limit public health risks.     

The inactivation of bacteriophage by ionizing radiation

The loss of energy by a fast, charged particle in dry material of atomic constitution approximating a protein is described and the important features tabulated. The inactivation of T-1, T-3, and T-7 bacteriophages in the dry state by deuterons is described and follows a simple logarithmic survival curve. The cross section per deuteron is much less than the electron microscope cross section in all three cases and indicates some kind of structure to the viruses. The variation of cross section with ionization density has been measured for T-1. It is linear and the kind of internal-structure which could account for this is discussed.     

Estimation of interaction function gamma(x) with sparsely ionizing radiation

The interaction function gamma(chi), which was introduced in the theory of dual radiation action as the probability that two energy transfers separated by distance chi combine with each other to produce a lesion, was estimated with sparsely ionizing radiation (60Co gamma rays and 40 kV X rays). Gamma(chi) was deduced on the assumption that the sensitive matrix is made up of small spherical flocculi distributed over the cell nucleus. The diameter of a flocculus was estimated at (4.0-11.2) X 10(-8) m when the diameter of the cell nucleus d was assumed to be 5 microns, and (4.0-11.4) X 10(-8) m when d was assumed to be 10 microns. It seems reasonable to hypothesize that the flocculus corresponds to the linker DNA in the chromatin structure of DNA, because the size of the linker DNA as a target (about 40 nm) is consistent with the diameter of flocculi obtained in this study.     

Age and hormonal status as determinants of cataractogenesis induced by ionizing radiation. I. Densely ionizing (high-LET) radiation

Astronauts participating in extended lunar missions or the projected mission to Mars would likely be exposed to significant doses of high-linear energy transfer (LET) heavy energetic charged (HZE) particles. Exposure to even relatively low doses of such space radiation may result in a reduced latent period for and an increased incidence of lens opacification. However, the determinants of cataractogenesis induced by densely ionizing radiation have not been clearly elucidated. In the current study, we show that age at the time of exposure is a key determinant of cataractogenesis in rats whose eyes have been exposed to 2 Gy of (56)Fe ions. The rate of progression of cataractogenesis was significantly greater in the irradiated eyes of 1-year-old rats compared to young (56-day-old) rats. Furthermore, older ovariectomized rats that received exogenous estrogen treatment (17-β-estradiol) commencing 1 week prior to irradiation and continuing throughout the period of observation of up to approximately 600 days after irradiation showed an increased incidence of cataracts and faster progression of opacification compared to intact rats with endogenous estrogen or ovariectomized rats. The same potentiating effect (higher incidence, reduced latent period) was observed for irradiated eyes of young rats. Modulation of estrogen status in the 1-year-old animals (e.g., removal of estrogen by ovariectomy or continuous exposure to estrogen) did not increase the latent period or reduce the incidence to that of intact 56-day-old rats. Since the rapid onset and progression of cataracts in 1-year-old compared to 56-day-old rats was independent of estrogen status, we conclude that estrogen cannot account for the age-dependent differences in cataractogenesis induced by high-LET radiation.     

Inactivation of Feline Calicivirus and Adenovirus Type 40 by UV Radiation

Little information regarding the effectiveness of UV radiation on the inactivation of caliciviruses and enteric adenoviruses is available. Analysis of human calicivirus resistance to disinfectants is hampered by the lack of animal or cell culture methods that can determine the viruses' infectivity. The inactivation kinetics of enteric adenovirus type 40 (AD40), coliphage MS-2, and feline calicivirus (FCV), closely related to the human caliciviruses based on nucleic acid organization and capsid architecture, were determined after exposure to low-pressure UV radiation in buffered demand-free (BDF) water at room temperature. In addition, UV disinfection experiments were also carried out in treated groundwater with FCV and AD40. AD40 was more resistant than either FCV or coliphage MS-2 in both BDF water and groundwater. The doses of UV required to achieve 99% inactivation of AD40, coliphage MS-2, and FCV in BDF water were 109, 55, and 16 mJ/cm², respectively. The doses of UV required to achieve 99% inactivation of AD40, coliphage MS-2, and FCV in groundwater were slightly lower than those in BDF water. FCV was inactivated by 99% by 13 mJ/cm² in treated groundwater. A dose of 103 mJ/cm² was required for 99% inactivation of AD40 in treated groundwater. The results of this study indicate that if FCV is an adequate surrogate for human caliciviruses, then their inactivation by UV radiation is similar to those of other single-stranded RNA enteric viruses, such as poliovirus. In addition, AD40 appears to be more resistant to UV disinfection than previously reported.     

Repair of DNA damage induced by gamma radiation and UV and gamma mimetics in virus-infected human cells

The method of chromatography of cell lysates on the columns with hydroxyapatite (HAP) and the method of ultracentrifugation of cell lysates in neutral sucrose gradient were used to study the mutagen-induced repair activity of human cells HEp-2 noninfected and chronically infected with measles and rubella viruses in order to determine the sedimentation properties of complexes containing DNA. Gamma-radiation, bleomycin, 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide, and mitomycin C were used as DNA damaging agents. It was shown that the chronic infectious process inhibited repair of DNA damages induced by 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide and mitomycin C and did not influence repair of DNA lesions caused by gamma-radiation and bleomycin.     

Ubiquitination of p53 and p21 is differentially affected by ionizing and UV radiation.

Levels of the tumor suppressor protein p53 are normally quite low due in part to its short half-life. p53 levels increase in cells exposed to DNA-damaging agents, such as radiation, and this increase is thought to be responsible for the radiation-induced G1 cell cycle arrest or delay. The mechanisms by which radiation causes an increase in p53 are currently unknown. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of gamma and UV radiation on the stability and ubiquitination of p53 in vivo. Ubiquitin-p53 conjugates could be detected in nonirradiated and gamma-irradiated cells but not in cells which were UV treated, despite the fact that both treatments resulted in the stabilization of the p53 protein. These results demonstrate that UV and gamma radiation have different effects on ubiquitinated p53 and suggest that the UV-induced stabilization of p53 results from a loss of p53 ubiquitination. Ubiquitinated forms of p21, an inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases, were detected in vivo, demonstrating that p21 is also a target for degradation by the ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic pathway. However, UV and gamma radiation had no effect on the stability or in vivo ubiquitination of p21, indicating that the radiation effects on p53 are specific.     

Hyperthermic inactivation of diploid yeast and the interaction of damage caused by hyperthermia and ionizing radiation.

Inactivation of diploid yeast by hyperthermia has been studied. DO and Dq decrease with temperature for euoxic and anoxic conditions. The Arrhenius plot shows a break at 52 degrees C; the inactivation energies above and below this temperature are 153 and 94kcal/mol respectively. Hyperthermia (20 min at 51 degrees C) also potentiates the lethal action of gamma rays in diploid yeast cells under both euoxic and anoxic conditions. The interaction between hyperthermic and radiation damage appears to be largely at the sublethal level. The euoxic cells, the hyperthermic potentiation decreases with increasing time between the application of hyperthermia and radiation, being completely lost after 24 hours. However, in the anoxic cells there was no decrease in the hyperthermic potentiation with increasing time interval. These results suggest that yeast cells are capable of repairing hyperthermic sublethal damage, but require oxygen to do so. Thus there is a similarity in the process of repair of sublethal damage caused by ionizing radiation on the one hand and hyperthermia on the other.     

The limit of the modifiability of cellular radiosensitivity in sequential exposure to ionizing radiation and physical factors of a nonionizing nature

The application of a mathematical model of synergism in describing the consecutive combined actions of ionizing radiation and other physical agents has been considered. Using various cell systems it has been shown that the model permits to predict the highest dose modifying factor and conditions in which it can be achieved.