Quantitative analysis of electrical properties of dendritic spines

Several sugestions have been made with regard to the functional significance of dendritic spines in connection with synaptic plasticity. We have shown that for a constant synaptic current, when the synaptic resistance is large compared to the spine-stem resistance, a morphological change in the spine does not produce a marked change in the postsynaptic potential (PSP). When the synaptic resistance is comparable to the spine-stem impedance a morphological change in the spine can induce changes in the synaptic current and the PSP due to the so-called nonlinear effect to the synapse (Kawato and Tsukahara, 1983, 1984). Consequently, in a study of the electrical properties of dendritic spines the input impedance of the parent dendrite, the spinestalk conductance and the conductance change associated with synaptic activity must be considered. We quantitatively estimated all three factors. By comparing electrophysiological data with morphological data, we estimated the synaptic conductance which causes corticorubral EPSP. Its maximum amplitude was 43 nS with a time-to-peak value of 0.3 ms. With this value, the effects of the spine were examined using an improved algorithm based on that of Butz and Cowan (1974). It uses a three-dimensional morphology of the rubrospinal (RS) neurons, which was reconstructed from serial sections containing HRP-filled RS cells. As the spine shortens, the amplitude of the EPSP becomes considerably larger, but its time-to-peak value does not markedly change. Moreover, if unitary EPSP in the RS cell is produced by the activation of several synaptic terminals a morphological change of the spine has a smaller effect on the EPSPs.     

Electrical advantages of dendritic spines

Many neurons receive excitatory glutamatergic input almost exclusively onto dendritic spines. In the absence of spines, the amplitudes and kinetics of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) at the site of synaptic input are highly variable and depend on dendritic location. We hypothesized that dendritic spines standardize the local geometry at the site of synaptic input, thereby reducing location-dependent variability of local EPSP properties. We tested this hypothesis using computational models of simplified and morphologically realistic spiny neurons that allow direct comparison of EPSPs generated on spine heads with EPSPs generated on dendritic shafts at the same dendritic locations. In all morphologies tested, spines greatly reduced location-dependent variability of local EPSP amplitude and kinetics, while having minimal impact on EPSPs measured at the soma. Spine-dependent standardization of local EPSP properties persisted across a range of physiologically relevant spine neck resistances, and in models with variable neck resistances. By reducing the variability of local EPSPs, spines standardized synaptic activation of NMDA receptors and voltage-gated calcium channels. Furthermore, spines enhanced activation of NMDA receptors and facilitated the generation of NMDA spikes and axonal action potentials in response to synaptic input. Finally, we show that dynamic regulation of spine neck geometry can preserve local EPSP properties following plasticity-driven changes in synaptic strength, but is inefficient in modifying the amplitude of EPSPs in other cellular compartments. These observations suggest that one function of dendritic spines is to standardize local EPSP properties throughout the dendritic tree, thereby allowing neurons to use similar voltage-sensitive postsynaptic mechanisms at all dendritic locations.     

Condition of optimum conduction of synaptic excitation along the dendritic fiber

Existence of an optimum radius of fibre is shown, when physical parameters of the intracellular medium and the nonexcitable dendritic membrane are determined and the length and load resistances are fixed. It provides the maximum potential for one end of the fibre if synaptic conductance is determined for another one. Conductance of excitation along the dendritic fibre of changing thickness is optimum for little synaptic conductance when the fibre radius increases and for high conductance when the radius decreases. The formula for calculating an optimum dendritic spine neck radius is proposed.     

Electrical consequences of spine dimensions in a model of a cortical spiny stellate cell completely reconstructed from serial thin sections

We built a passive compartmental model of a cortical spiny stellate cell from the barrel cortex of the mouse that had been reconstructed in its entirety from electron microscopic analysis of serial thin sections (White and Rock, 1980). Morphological data included dimensions of soma and all five dendrites, neck lengths and head diameters of all 380 spines (a uniform neck diameter of 0.1 m was assumed), locations of all symmetrical and asymmetrical (axo-spinous) synapses, and locations of all 43 thalamocortical (TC) synapses (as identified from the consequences of a prior thalamic lesion). In the model, unitary excitatory synaptic inputs had a peak conductance change of 0.5 nS at 0.2 msec; conclusions were robust over a wide range of assumed passive-membrane parameters. When recorded at the soma, all unitary EPSPs, which were initiated at the spine heads, were relatively iso-efficient; each produced about 1 mV somatic depolarization regardless of spine location or geometry. However, in the spine heads there was a twentyfold variation in EPSP amplitudes, largely reflecting the variation in spine neck lengths. Synchronous activation of the TC synapses produced a somatic depolarization probably sufficient to fire the neuron; doubling or halving the TC spine neck diameters had only minimal effect on the amplitude of the composite TC-EPSP. As have others, we also conclude that from a somato-centric viewpoint, changes in spine geometry would have relatively little direct influence on amplitudes of EPSPs recorded at the soma, especially for a distributed, synchronously activated input such as the TC pathway. However, consideration of the detailed morphology of an entire neuron indicates that, from a dendro-centric point of view, changes in spine dimension can have a very significant electrical impact on local processing near the sites of input.     

State-dependent calcium signaling in dendritic spines of striatal medium spiny neurons

Striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in vivo undergo large membrane depolarizations known as state transitions. Calcium (Ca) entry into MSNs triggers diverse downstream cellular processes. However, little is known about Ca signals in MSN dendrites and spines and how state transitions influence these signals. Here, we develop a novel approach, combining 2-photon Ca imaging and 2-photon glutamate uncaging, to examine how voltage-sensitive Ca channels (VSCCs) and ionotropic glutamate receptors contribute to Ca signals in MSNs. We find that upstate transitions switch the VSCCs available in dendrites and spines, decreasing T-type while enhancing L-type channels. Moreover, these transitions change the dominant synaptic Ca source from Ca-permeable AMPA receptors to NMDA receptors. Finally, pairing bAPs with synaptic inputs generates additional synaptic Ca signals due to enhanced Ca influx through NMDA receptors. By altering the sources, amplitude, and kinetics of spine Ca signals, state transitions may gate synaptic plasticity and gene expression in MSNs.     

Electrical properties of dendritic spines with bulbous end terminals

Several suggestions have been made about the functional significance of dendritic spines in connection with synaptic plasticity. We investigated transient electrical behavior of spines with bulbous terminals in neurons with arbitrary dendritic geometries. It is shown that postsynaptic potential transform caused by a synapse on a spine can be resolved into a product of two transfer functions and the synaptic input current transform. The first transfer function was determined to be independent of the spine. The second transfer function represents the straightforward attenuation effect of the spine, which determines the effective synaptic current reaching the parent dendrite. Using what is known of the size and the shape of spines from histology, we conclude that almost all of the synaptic current flow into the parent dendrite, and that therefore the straightforward attenuation effect is negligible. Consequently, when the synaptic current remained unaltered, as was the case for a large synaptic resistance as compared with the spine stem resistance, a morphological change of the spine did not produce an effective change in the postsynaptic potential. On the other hand, when the synaptic resistance is compared with the spine stem impedance, the morphological change of the spine might induce changes of the synaptic current and the postsynaptic potential.     

Topography of synaptosomal high affinity uptake systems.

We have tested the hypothesis that the glycoproteins in the cell membrane of axonal terminals are involved in high affinity uptake of neurotransmitters by studying the effects of lectin binding and trypsin treatment on this process in synaptosomes. Binding of two lectins, Concanavalin A and a lectin isolated from the lentil Lens culinaris, to synaptosomes does not change the uptake of six putative transmitters: L-glutamate, norepinephrine (NE), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), dopamine, choline (Ch), and γ-aminobutyrate (GABA). While trypsin digestion of surface proteins of synaptosomes has no effect on the uptake of NE, 5-HT, dopamine, Ch and GABA, it reduces the rate of uptake of L-glutamate. This reduction is not due to synaptosomal lysis or a profound conformational change of the synaptic plasma membrane since the maximal velocity of high affinity uptake is reduced drastically with little attendant change in K_m.     

灭多威对美洲大蠊腹六神经节突触传递的阻断作用

用电生理学方法研究了灭多威对美洲大蠊Periplanetaamerwana腹六神经节(A6节)突触传递的影响。用灭多威溶液浸泡A6节,电刺激尾须神经粗支,用甘露醇间隙法记录兴奋性突触后电位(EPSP)和突触后动作电位。给予弱刺激只记录到EPSP时,灭多威作用初期EPSP幅度增加、时程延长,能诱发突触后动作电位,随后EPSP逐渐减小至消失,冲洗可恢复,突触前反应保持不变。增加电刺激强度记录到突触后动作电位时,灭多威可阻断A6节的突触传递,阻断时间是浓度依赖性的,阻断是可逆的,但冲洗30 min仍保留一定的后作用。对美洲大蠊雄性成虫腹腔注射灭多威测定致死中量(LD₅₀)为(3.56±0.01) μg/g体重。根据灭多威的作用机理对其阻断A6节突触传递的特点以及对虫体的毒杀机制进行了讨论。     

Spillover of glutamate onto synaptic AMPA receptors enhances fast transmission at a cerebellar synapse

Diffusion of glutamate from the synaptic cleft can activate high-affinity receptors, but is not thought to contribute to fast AMPA receptor-mediated transmission. Here, we show that single AMPA receptor EPSCs at the cerebellar mossy fiber-granule cell connection are mediated by both direct release of glutamate and rapid diffusion of glutamate from neighboring synapses. Immunogold localization revealed that AMPA receptors are located exclusively in postsynaptic densities, indicating that spillover of glutamate occurs between synaptic contacts. Spillover currents contributed half the synaptic charge and exhibited little trial-to-trial variability. We propose that spillover of glutamate improves transmission efficacy by both increasing the amplitude and duration of the EPSP and reducing fluctuations arising from the probabilistic nature of transmitter release.     

Glyphosate sensitivity of 5-enol-pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase from Bacillus subtilis depends upon state of activation induced by monovalent cations

The 5-enol-pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP) synthase from Bacillus subtilis was activated by monovalent cations, catalytic activity being negligible in the absence of monovalent cations. The order of cation effectiveness (NH4+ greater than K+ greater than Rb+ greater than Na+ = Cs+ = Li+) indicated that the extent of activation was directly related to the unhydrated cation radius. Ammonium salts, at physiological concentrations, were dramatically more effective than other cations. Activation by ammonium was instantaneous, was not influenced by the counter ion, and gave a hyperbolic saturation curve. Hill plots did not show detectable cooperativity in the binding of ammonium. Double-reciprocal plots indicated that ammonium increases the maximal velocity and decreases the apparent Michaelis constants of EPSP synthase with respect to both phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) and shikimate 3-phosphate (S3P). A direct relationship between sensitivity to inhibition by glyphosate and the activation state of EPSP synthase was demonstrated. Hill plots indicated a single value for glyphosate binding throughout the range of ammonium activation. Double-reciprocal plots of substrate saturation data obtained with ammonium-activated enzyme in the presence of glyphosate showed glyphosate to behave as a competitive inhibitor with respect to PEP and as a mixed-type inhibitor relative to S3P. The increased glyphosate sensitivity of ammonium-activated EPSP synthase is attributed to a lowering of the inhibitor constant of glyphosate with respect to PEP. Erroneous underestimates of sensitivities of some bacterial EPSP synthases to inhibition by glyphosate may result from failure to recognize cation requirements of EPSP synthases.     

Synaptic effects elicited in the Retzius cells of the leech Hirudo medicinalis by stimulation of the segmental roots

Electrical stimulation of the segmental roots of each ganglion of Hirudo medicinalis, elicits in both Retzius' cells inhibitory and excitatory effects. The IPSP and EPSP are chemical in nature, being dependent on the membrane potential, and suppressed by high Mg++. Selective inactivation of one RC shows that the responses of the contralateral RC are not due to electrotonic coupling between the two cells, but to synaptic actions impinging upon the membrane of both RCs. The two synaptic potentials appear to be mediated by two set of fibres with a different threshold to electrical stimulation. Their actions on the RCs appear to be polysynaptic on the basis of central latency. Simultaneous stimulation of two roots shows evidence for occlusion for IPSP and summation for EPSP, confirming the polysynaptic nature of the effects. The possible functional significance of the inhibitory and excitatory pathways, is discussed.     

Presynaptic modulating effects of GABA on depression, facilitation, and posttetanic potentiation of a cholinergic synapse in Aplysia californica

The effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) have been studied on the synaptic depression, frequency facilitation, and posttetanic potentiation (PTP) of a unitary, monosynaptic, and presumably cholinergic excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). This EPSP, produced by minimal stimulation of the right visceropleural connective, was recorded in cell R 15 of Aplysia californica. Perfusion with GABA (10(-4)-10(-3) M) reduces the size of all EPSPs produced by a train of 100 stimuli at 1/s. It also reduced the synaptic depression and PTP, and increases the frequency facilitation seen during the train. GABA does not significantly effect the membrane resistance (mean 102%) but it slightly depolarizes (mean 6 mV) the postsynaptic cell. GABA does not reduce an acetylcholine iontophoretic potential produced on R15. The effects of GABA are reduction when chloride is replaced by acetate but they remain significant. Picrotoxin and bicuculline fail to antagonize GABA. Addition of sodium azide or dinitrophenol does not reduce the action of GABA and even prolongs it. The effects of GABA are attributed to two sites of action: a postsynaptic one, responsible for the small change in potential and partially responsible for the reduction of EPSP size; and a presynaptic one, responsible for a further reduction of EPSP size and the changes of depression, facilitation, and PTP.     

Computer simulation study of the relationship between the profile of excitatory postsynaptic potential and stimulus-correlated motoneuron firing

This paper shows the results of computer simulation of changes in motoneuron (MN) firing evoked by a repetitively applied synaptic volley that consists of a single excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). Spike trains produced by the threshold-crossing MN model were analyzed as experimental results. Various output functions were applied for analysis; the most useful was a peristimulus time histogram, a special modification of a raster plot and a peristimulus time frequencygram (PSTF). It has been shown that all functions complement each other in distinguishing between the genuine results evoked by the excitatory volley and the secondary results of the EPSP-evoked synchronization. The EPSP rising edge was best reproduced by the PSTF. However, whereas the EPSP rise time could be estimated quite accurately, especially for high EPSP amplitudes at high MN firing rates, the EPSP amplitude estimate was also influenced by factors unrelated to the synaptic volley, such as the afterhyperpolarization duration of the MN or the amplitude of synaptic noise, which cannot be directly assessed in human experiments. Thus, the attempts to scale any estimate of the EPSP amplitude in millivolts appear to be useless. The decaying phase of the EPSP cannot be reproduced accurately by any of the functions. For the short EPSPs, it is extinguished by the generation of an action potential and a subsequent decrease in the MN excitability. For longer EPSPs, it is inseparable from the secondary effects of synchronization. Thus, the methods aimed at extracting information about long-lasting and complex postsynaptic potentials from stimulus-correlated MN firing, should be refined, and the theoretical considerations checked in computer simulations.     

Effects of low-frequency tetanic stimulation of the synaptic inputs on different forms of long-term potentiation in the rat hippocampus

In experiments on transversal slices of the dorsal hippocampus of rats, we found that low-frequency stimulation of the mossy fibers (MF) against the background of pre-settled long-term post-tetanic potentiation in the MF-CA3 pyramidal neuron (PN) dendrites synaptic system evoked depotentiation in all studied slices. Depotentiation was considerably decreased by a non-competitive blocker of the NMDA glutamate receptors, ketamine (100 μM), as well as by an inhibitor of calmodulin, trifluoroperazine (10 μM), and an inhibitor of calcineurin, cyclosporin A (250 μM). At the same time, depontentiation was not changed by 50 μM polymixin B, an inhibitor of protein kinase C. Long-term potentiation of synaptic transmission in the Schaffer collaterals (SchC)-CA1 PN dendrites system, which was evoked by 2.5-min-long anoxia/aglycemia episodes, resulted exclusively from enhancement of the NMDA component of population EPSP, while their AMPA component was not modified, i.e., in this case potentiation was of a postsynaptic nature. Under these conditions, low-frequency stimulation of SchC resulted in a further increase in the intensity of synaptic transmission due to increases in both the NMDA and AMPA components of population EPSP. The above form of potentiation could be suppressed by 100 μM ketamine, 10 μM trifuoroperazine, 250 μM cyclosporin A, or 10 μM N-nitro-L-arginine. Weak (near-threshold) high-frequency stimulation of SchC induced long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission due to an isolated increase in the AMPA component of population EPSP, i.e., this potentiation was of a postsynaptic nature. In the latter case, low-frequency SchC stimulation resulted in further facilitation of synaptic transmission. Intensive tetanic high-frequency stimulation of the above fibers induced long-term potentiation of a presynaptic nature, while their low-frequency stimulation depotentiated synaptic transmission.     

Sensory expectations and anti-Hebbian synaptic plasticity in cerebellum-like structures

Cerebellum-like sensory structures in different groups of fish have been shown to generate a negative image of predictable features of the sensory input. We show here that anti-Hebbian plasticity is present at the synapse between parallel fibers and Purkinje-like cells which could mediate the generation of these negative images. We also show that this synapse is capable of bidirectional changes in synaptic efficacy with the direction of change depending on the precise temporal relation of presynaptic input and postsynaptic spike during pairing. Parallel fiber-evoked EPSPs are depressed after pairings in which the EPSP begins between 0 and 60 ms before the postsynaptic spike but are enhanced at other delays, including those in which the postsysnaptic spike occurs just before the EPSP.     

Brain lactic acidosis and synaptic function

Measurements of the presynaptic fiber volley (PSFV), the population excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP), and the extracellular pH in the dendritic CA1 layer of rat hippocampal slices were used to evaluate the effects of lactacidosis on central synaptic transmission. Replacement of NaCl with sodium lactate (up to 30 mM) was found not to affect the PSFV; however, the EPSP was reversibly suppressed. Sodium citrate, with added CaCl2 to adjust for Ca2+ chelation, had the same effect as sodium lactate. Addition of lactic acid influenced the PSFV only when, at a concentration of 30 mM, the extracellular pH dropped to 6.6 or lower. With lactic acid concentrations of up to 20 mM, which produced pH levels of 6.8 in the slice, effects on the EPSP were reversible. However, 30 mM lactic acid suppressed both the PSFV and EPSP irreversibly. These results show that synaptic transmission is much more susceptible to lactacidosis than presynaptic axonal transmission. They also show that high levels of lactate, albeit causing suppression of synaptic transmission, do not cause irreversible damage. However, acidosis associated with lactic acid release may damage synaptic transmission irreversibly.     

A biphasic excitability change in hindlimb motoneurons evoked by stimulation of the nucleus raphes magnus in the cat

1. The influence of electrical stimulation of the nucleus raphes magnus (RM) on spinal segmental systems were examined. 2. RM stimulation produced an initial increase and a subsequent suppression of the amplitude of both fiextor and extensor lumbar monosynaptic reflex potentials (MSRs). 3. Intracellular recordings were made from alpha-motoneurons of the common peroneal nerve (flexor) and the tibial nerve (extensor). RM stimulation evoked postsynaptic potentials with a time course similar to that of MSR facilitation. 4. RM stimulation inhibited the aggregate excitatory synaptic potential (EPSP) evoked by stimulation of group I afferent fibers without apparent changes in the motoneuronal membrane potential. 5. These data suggest that the RM-evoked biphasic effect on MSR consists of early facilitation due to EPSP, and late inhibition possibly due to presynaptic inhibition of group I afferent fibers.     

The TRPM7 ion channel functions in cholinergic synaptic vesicles and affects transmitter release

A longstanding hypothesis is that ion channels are present in the membranes of synaptic vesicles and might affect neurotransmitter release. Here we demonstrate that TRPM7, a member of the transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channel family, resides in the membrane of synaptic vesicles of sympathetic neurons, forms molecular complexes with the synaptic vesicle proteins synapsin I and synaptotagmin I, and directly interacts with synaptic vesicular snapin. In sympathetic neurons, changes in TRPM7 levels and channel activity alter acetylcholine release, as measured by EPSP amplitudes and decay times in postsynaptic neurons. TRPM7 affects EPSP quantal size, an intrinsic property of synaptic vesicle release. Targeted peptide interference of TRPM7's interaction with snapin affects the amplitudes and kinetics of postsynaptic EPSPs. Thus, vesicular TRPM7 channel activity is critical to neurotransmitter release in sympathetic neurons.     

A persistent postsynaptic modification mediates long-term potentiation in the hippocampus

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission that can be induced by brief repetitive stimulation of excitatory pathways in the hippocampus. One of the most controversial points is whether the process underlying the enhanced synaptic transmission occurs pre- or postsynaptically. To examine this question, we have taken advantage of the novel physiological properties of excitatory synaptic transmission in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. Synaptically released glutamate activates both NMDA and non-NMDA receptors on pyramidal cells, resulting in an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) with two distinct components. A selective increase in the non-NMDA component of the EPSP was observed with LTP. This result suggests that the enhancement of synaptic transmission during LTP is caused by an increased sensitivity of the postsynaptic neuron to synaptically released glutamate.