The human telomeric proteome during telomere replication

Telomere shortening can cause detrimental diseases and contribute to aging. It occurs due to the end replication problem in cells lacking telomerase. Furthermore, recent studies revealed that telomere shortening can be attributed to difficulties of the semi-conservative DNA replication machinery to replicate the bulk of telomeric DNA repeats. To investigate telomere replication in a comprehensive manner, we develop QTIP-iPOND - Quantitative Telomeric chromatin Isolation Protocol followed by isolation of Proteins On Nascent DNA - which enables purification of proteins that associate with telomeres specifically during replication. In addition to the core replisome, we identify a large number of proteins that specifically associate with telomere replication forks. Depletion of several of these proteins induces telomere fragility validating their importance for telomere replication. We also find that at telomere replication forks the single strand telomere binding protein POT1 is depleted, whereas histone H1 is enriched. Our work reveals the dynamic changes of the telomeric proteome during replication, providing a valuable resource of telomere replication proteins. To our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the replisome at a specific region of the genome.     

DNA Double-Strand Breaks and Telomeres Play Important Roles in Trypanosoma brucei Antigenic Variation

Human-infecting microbial pathogens all face a serious problem of elimination by the host immune response. Antigenic variation is an effective immune evasion mechanism where the pathogen regularly switches its major surface antigen. In many cases, the major surface antigen is encoded by genes from the same gene family, and its expression is strictly monoallelic. Among pathogens that undergo antigenic variation, Trypanosoma brucei (a kinetoplastid), which causes human African trypanosomiasis, Plasmodium falciparum (an apicomplexan), which causes malaria, Pneumocystis jirovecii (a fungus), which causes pneumonia, and Borrelia burgdorferi (a bacterium), which causes Lyme disease, also express their major surface antigens from loci next to the telomere. Except for Plasmodium, DNA recombination-mediated gene conversion is a major pathway for surface antigen switching in these pathogens. In the last decade, more sophisticated molecular and genetic tools have been developed in T. brucei, and our knowledge of functions of DNA recombination in antigenic variation has been greatly advanced. VSG is the major surface antigen in T. brucei. In subtelomeric VSG expression sites (ESs), VSG genes invariably are flanked by a long stretch of upstream 70-bp repeats. Recent studies have shown that DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), particularly those in 70-bp repeats in the active ES, are a natural potent trigger for antigenic variation in T. brucei. In addition, telomere proteins can influence VSG switching by reducing the DSB amount at subtelomeric regions. These findings will be summarized and their implications will be discussed in this review.     

Trypanosoma brucei TIF2 suppresses VSG switching by maintaining subtelomere integrity

Subtelomeres consist of sequences adjacent to telomeres and contain genes involved in important cellular functions, as subtelomere instability is associated with several human diseases. Balancing between subtelomere stability and plasticity is particularly important for Trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite that causes human African trypanosomiasis. T. brucei regularly switches its major variant surface antigen, variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), to evade the host immune response, and VSGs are expressed exclusively from subtelomeres in a strictly monoallelic fashion. Telomere proteins are important for protecting chromosome ends from illegitimate DNA processes. However, whether they contribute to subtelomere integrity and stability has not been well studied. We have identified a novel T. brucei telomere protein, T. brucei TRF-Interacting Factor 2 (TbTIF2), as a functional homolog of mammalian TIN2. A transient depletion of TbTIF2 led to an elevated VSG switching frequency and an increased amount of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in both active and silent subtelomeric bloodstream form expression sites (BESs). Therefore, TbTIF2 plays an important role in VSG switching regulation and is important for subtelomere integrity and stability. TbTIF2 depletion increased the association of TbRAD51 with the telomeric and subtelomeric chromatin, and TbRAD51 deletion further increased subtelomeric DSBs in TbTIF2-depleted cells, suggesting that TbRAD51-mediated DSB repair is the underlying mechanism of subsequent VSG switching. Surprisingly, significantly more TbRAD51 associated with the active BES than with the silent BESs upon TbTIF2 depletion, and TbRAD51 deletion induced much more DSBs in the active BES than in the silent BESs in TbTIF2-depleted cells, suggesting that TbRAD51 preferentially repairs DSBs in the active BES.     

A Multiple Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase Complex That Enhances tRNA-Aminoacylation in African Trypanosomes

The genes for all cytoplasmic and potentially all mitochondrial aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) were identified, and all those tested by RNA interference were found to be essential for the growth of Trypanosoma brucei. Some of these enzymes were localized to the cytoplasm or mitochondrion, but most were dually localized to both cellular compartments. Cytoplasmic T. brucei aaRSs were organized in a multiprotein complex in both bloodstream and procyclic forms. The multiple aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (MARS) complex contained at least six aaRS enzymes and three additional non-aaRS proteins. Steady-state kinetic studies showed that association in the MARS complex enhances tRNA-aminoacylation efficiency, which is in part dependent on a MARS complex-associated protein (MCP), named MCP2, that binds tRNAs and increases their aminoacylation by the complex. Conditional repression of MCP2 in T. brucei bloodstream forms resulted in reduced parasite growth and infectivity in mice. Thus, association in a MARS complex enhances tRNA-aminoacylation and contributes to parasite fitness. The MARS complex may be part of a cellular regulatory system and a target for drug development.     

Deletion of a trypanosome telomere leads to loss of silencing and progressive loss of terminal DNA in the absence of cell cycle arrest

Eukaryotic chromosomes are capped with telomeres which allow complete chromosome replication and prevent the ends from being recognized by the repair machinery. The African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, is a protozoan parasite where antigenic variation requires reversible silencing of a repository of telomere-adjacent variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) genes. We have investigated the role of the telomere adjacent to a repressed VSG. In cells lacking telomerase, the rate of telomere-repeat loss appeared to be inversely proportional to telomere length. We therefore constructed strains in which a single telomere could be immediately removed by conditional I-SceI meganuclease cleavage. Following telomere deletion, cells maintain and segregate the damaged chromosome without repairing it. These cells continue to proliferate at the normal rate but progressively lose terminal DNA at the broken end. Although sirtuin-dependent repression is lost along with the telomere, VSG-silencing is preserved. The results provide direct evidence for telomere-dependent repression but suggest a telomere-independent mode of VSG-silencing. They also indicate the absence of a telomere-loss checkpoint in T. brucei.     

POLIE suppresses telomerase-mediated telomere G-strand extension and helps ensure proper telomere C-strand synthesis in trypanosomes

Trypanosoma brucei causes human African trypanosomiasis and sequentially expresses distinct VSGs, its major surface antigen, to achieve host immune evasion. VSGs are monoallelically expressed from subtelomeric loci, and telomere proteins regulate VSG monoallelic expression and VSG switching. T. brucei telomerase is essential for telomere maintenance, but no regulators of telomerase have been identified. T. brucei appears to lack OB fold-containing telomere-specific ssDNA binding factors that are critical for coordinating telomere G- and C-strand syntheses in higher eukaryotes. We identify POLIE as a telomere protein essential for telomere integrity. POLIE-depleted cells have more frequent VSG gene conversion-mediated VSG switching and an increased amount of telomeric circles (T-circles), indicating that POLIE suppresses DNA recombination at the telomere/subtelomere. POLIE-depletion elongates telomere 3′ overhangs dramatically, indicating that POLIE is essential for coordinating DNA syntheses of the two telomere strands. POLIE depletion increases the level of telomerase-dependent telomere G-strand extension, identifying POLIE as the first T. brucei telomere protein that suppresses telomerase. Furthermore, depletion of POLIE results in an elevated telomeric C-circle level, suggesting that the telomere C-strand experiences replication stress and that POLIE may promote telomere C-strand synthesis. Therefore, T. brucei uses a novel mechanism to coordinate the telomere G- and C-strand DNA syntheses.     

Ccq1-Tpz1TPP1 interaction facilitates telomerase and SHREC association with telomeres in fission yeast

Evolutionarily conserved shelterin complex is essential for telomere maintenance in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Elimination of the fission yeast shelterin subunit Ccq1 causes progressive loss of telomeres due to the inability to recruit telomerase, activates the DNA damage checkpoint, and loses heterochromatin at telomere/subtelomere regions due to reduced recruitment of the heterochromatin regulator complex Snf2/histone deacetylase–containing repressor complex (SHREC). The shelterin subunit Tpz1^TPP1 directly interacts with Ccq1 through conserved C-terminal residues in Tpz1^TPP1, and tpz1 mutants that fail to interact with Ccq1 show telomere shortening, checkpoint activation, and loss of heterochromatin. While we have previously concluded that Ccq1-Tpz1^TPP1 interaction contributes to Ccq1 accumulation and telomerase recruitment based on analysis of tpz1 mutants that fail to interact with Ccq1, another study reported that loss of Ccq1-Tpz1^TPP1 interaction does not affect accumulation of Ccq1 or telomerase. Furthermore, it remained unclear whether loss of Ccq1-Tpz1^TPP1 interaction affects SHREC accumulation at telomeres. To resolve these issues, we identified and characterized a series of ccq1 mutations that disrupt Ccq1-Tpz1^TPP1 interaction. Characterization of these ccq1 mutants established that Ccq1-Tpz1^TPP1 interaction contributes to optimal binding of the Ccq1-SHREC complex, and is critical for Rad3^ATR/Tel1^ATM-dependent Ccq1 Thr93 phosphorylation and telomerase recruitment.     

TEN1 Is Essential for CDC13-Mediated Telomere Capping

Telomere binding proteins protect chromosome ends from degradation and mask chromosome termini from checkpoint surveillance. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Cdc13 binds single-stranded G-rich telomere repeats, maintaining telomere integrity and length. Two additional proteins, Ten1 and Stn1, interact with Cdc13 but their contributions to telomere integrity are not well defined. Ten1 is known to prevent accumulation of aberrant single-stranded telomere DNA; whether this results from defective end protection or defective telomere replication is unclear. Here we report our analysis of a new group of ten1 temperature-sensitive (ts) mutants. At permissive temperatures, ten1-ts strains display greatly elongated telomeres. After shift to nonpermissive conditions, however, ten1-ts mutants accumulate extensive telomeric single-stranded DNA. Cdk1 activity is required to generate these single-stranded regions, and deleting the EXO1 nuclease partially suppresses ten1-ts growth defects. This is similar to cdc13-1 mutants, suggesting ten1-ts strains are defective for end protection. Moreover, like Cdc13, our analysis reveals Ten1 promotes de novo telomere addition. Interestingly, in ten1-ts strains at high temperatures, telomeric single-stranded DNA and Rad52-YFP repair foci are strongly induced despite Cdc13 remaining associated with telomeres, revealing Cdc13 telomere binding is not sufficient for end protection. Finally, unlike cdc13-1 mutants, ten1-ts strains display strong synthetic interactions with mutations in the POLα complex. These results emphasize that Cdc13 relies on Ten1 to execute its essential function, but leave open the possibility that Ten1 has a Cdc13-independent role in DNA replication.GENOME stability is critically dependent upon functional telomeres. DNA ends that lack telomeres, or that have dysfunctional telomeres, are metabolized by DNA repair processes; without an appropriate repair template, such chromosome ends can be resected or joined inappropriately with other chromosome ends. Thus, genomic integrity can be significantly compromised by telomere dysfunction, particularly in proliferating cells where cycles of instability may ensue due to creation of dicentric chromosomes (Bailey and Murnane 2006). Protein complexes that bind to the duplex and single-stranded telomere repeats are key for stabilizing the chromosome ends (de Lange 2005). In proliferating cells, this job is complicated not only because the terminal chromatin must be opened during the process of chromosome replication, but also because additional processes that metabolize DNA ends are active. For example, while nonhomologous end joining processes are preferentially used in repair of DNA double-strand breaks in G1, homologous recombination is preferentially used for this repair in S and G2 (Ferreira and Cooper 2004; Zierhut and Diffley 2008). Given these complexities, it is not surprising that our molecular understanding of how telomere proteins protect chromosomes ends is incomplete.Budding yeast has been useful for dissecting how cells correctly metabolize their chromosome ends. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the terminal DNA comprises approximately 300 bp of TG_1-3/C_1-3A sequences, ending with a short single-stranded overhang of the G-rich repeats. This 3′ overhang is ∼12–14 nucleotides, although during the late S/G2 phase of the cell cycle, it becomes longer, >30 nucleotides in length (Wellinger et al. 1993b; Dionne and Wellinger 1996; Larrivee et al. 2004). Central among factors that prevent inappropriate telomere degradation in S. cerevisiae is Cdc13, a protein that binds to single-stranded telomere G-rich repeats (Garvik et al. 1995; Lin and Zakian 1996; Nugent et al. 1996). Reducing Cdc13 function through either the cdc13-1 temperature sensitive (ts) allele or the cdc13-td conditional null (degron) allele results in telomere C-strand loss, with degradation continuing into the subtelomeric chromosomal regions (Garvik et al. 1995; Vodenicharov and Wellinger 2006). Correspondingly, homologous recombination at chromosome termini increases in cdc13-1 strains (Carson and Hartwell 1985; Garvik et al. 1995). The loss of Cdc13 unmasks the telomeres, provoking activation of the DNA damage checkpoint (Weinert and Hartwell 1993; Garvik et al. 1995). This protective role of Cdc13 is most likely its essential function.A thorough, mechanistic understanding of how Cdc13 mediates chromosome end protection is hampered in part because the activities responsible for the loss of the telomere C strand are not fully known. At normal telomeres, the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 complex has a role regulating resection required for telomere addition, whereas the Exo1 nuclease, Rad9 and Rad24 checkpoint proteins each influence the resection process at uncapped telomeres (Lydall and Weinert 1995; Maringele and Lydall 2002; Larrivee et al. 2004; Zubko et al. 2004). The 5′-to-3′ resection of both normal and uncapped telomeres is regulated by the activity of Cdk1, the yeast cyclin-dependent kinase (Frank et al. 2006; Vodenicharov and Wellinger 2006). Similar to the activities that promote 5′-to-3′ degradation of DNA ends at double-strand breaks (Aylon et al. 2004; Ira et al. 2004), the activities that lead to telomere resection are active in late S and G2 cell cycle phases (Wellinger et al. 1993a, 1996; Marcand et al. 2000; Vodenicharov and Wellinger 2006). Interestingly, Cdc13 is required to prevent degradation at telomeres only in proliferating cells and not when cells are blocked in stationary phase (Vodenicharov and Wellinger 2006). Additional factors, such as the S. cerevisiae Rap1 protein, prevent chromosome fusions by nonhomologous recombination during the G1 phase of the cell cycle (Pardo and Marcand 2005; Marcand et al. 2008).At least two additional proteins, Stn1 and Ten1, aid the capping role of Cdc13. Like CDC13, both STN1 and TEN1 are essential, and loss of their function leads to excessive single-stranded telomeric DNA (Grandin et al. 1997, 2001; Petreaca et al. 2007). STN1 was originally identified as a high copy suppressor of cdc13-1 temperature sensitivity (Grandin et al. 1997), and TEN1 was similarly isolated as a dosage suppressor of stn1-13 (Grandin et al. 2001). Combining either the cdc13-1 allele with stn1 mutations or the ten1-31 allele with stn1-13 is lethal (Grandin et al. 2001; Petreaca et al. 2007). The essential nature of these genes makes it difficult to clearly differentiate whether these genes operate in the same, or in parallel pathways to protect telomeres. A compelling argument that Cdc13, Stn1, and Ten1 likely function in a common pathway is that, in addition to these genetic interactions, Stn1 and Ten1 proteins interact with one another both in vivo and in vitro (Grandin et al. 2001; Gao et al. 2007), and each associates with Cdc13 in the yeast two-hybrid assay (Grandin et al. 1997, 2001; Petreaca et al. 2007). From these data, Cdc13, Stn1, and Ten1 are suggested to function as a single complex that mediates chromosome end protection in S. cerevisiae. Such a complex would share some similarities with the single-stranded DNA binding complex RPA (Gao et al. 2007). Whether these proteins normally operate exclusively as a heterotrimeric complex is still not entirely clear. Stn1 and Ten1 can make contributions to capping that are independent of Cdc13, as shown in experiments where overproducing the Stn1 essential domain with Ten1 replaced the essential function of Cdc13 (Petreaca et al. 2006). In addition, while the Schizosaccharomyces pombe Stn1 and Ten1 homologs are critical for telomere protection, they do not interact with Pot1, the single-stranded telomere binding protein that is also critical for telomere capping (Martin et al. 2007).The role of Ten1 in maintaining both telomere integrity and length homeostasis is not understood. It has been assumed that Stn1 and Ten1 play the same role as Cdc13 in maintaining telomere integrity, namely, preventing inappropriate terminal resection. However, whether this is in fact the case is not entirely clear. For one, disrupting the DNA replication machinery can give rise to an excess of terminal single-stranded DNA, although in this case, the ssDNA accumulation is attributed to a failure to synthesize the lagging DNA strand rather than removing a block to telomere resection (Diede and Gottschling 1999; Adams Martin et al. 2000). Although both Cdc13 and Stn1 are thought to act as capping proteins, each can interact with Polα subunits (Qi et al. 2003; Grossi et al. 2004; Petreaca et al. 2006), making it important to evaluate Ten1 function more carefully. Our goal here was to compare how Cdc13 and Ten1 promote chromosome end protection, first by testing whether Ten1 acts to prevent telomere resection from activities comparable to those that degrade telomeres in cdc13-1, and second by determining the impact of ten1 dysfunction upon Cdc13. The cdc13-1 allele has been extremely useful in analyzing the CDC13 essential function; TEN1 analysis has been hindered by a lack of equivalent genetic reagents. Here we have created a collection of ten1-ts alleles useful for probing the essential role of TEN1. Analysis of these alleles, which show constitutive telomere elongation, reveals that Ten1 promotes telomere capping with a similar cell cycle dependency as Cdc13, protecting ends during the period in which mitotic forms of Cdk1 are active. Critically, by showing that single-stranded DNA is generated in ten1-ts strains under conditions where semi-conservative replication is complete, we conclude that Ten1 truly can function as a capping protein. Moreover, the ten1-ts strains fail to restrain degradation of chromosome ends and induce formation of Rad52 repair foci, despite the association of wild-type Cdc13 with telomeres, indicating not only that Cdc13 binds telomeres independent of Ten1 function, but also that Cdc13 telomere localization is not sufficient for end protection. Finally, although the ten1-ts capping-deficient phenotypes parallel cdc13-1, only the ten1-ts strains are highly sensitive to impaired POL1 function, leaving open the possibility that TEN1 function additionally impacts terminal replication.     

TbTRF suppresses the TERRA level and regulates the cell cycle-dependent TERRA foci number with a TERRA binding activity in its C-terminal Myb domain

Telomere repeat-containing RNA (TERRA) has been identified in multiple organisms including Trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite that causes human African trypanosomiasis. T. brucei regularly switches its major surface antigen, VSG, to evade the host immune response. VSG is expressed exclusively from subtelomeric expression sites, and we have shown that telomere proteins play important roles in the regulation of VSG silencing and switching. In this study, we identify several unique features of TERRA and telomere biology in T. brucei. First, the number of TERRA foci is cell cycle-regulated and influenced by TbTRF, the duplex telomere DNA binding factor in T. brucei. Second, TERRA is transcribed by RNA polymerase I mainly from a single telomere downstream of the active VSG. Third, TbTRF binds TERRA through its C-terminal Myb domain, which also has the duplex DNA binding activity, in a sequence-specific manner and suppresses the TERRA level without affecting its half-life. Finally, levels of the telomeric R-loop and telomere DNA damage were increased upon TbTRF depletion. Overexpression of an ectopic allele of RNase H1 that resolves the R-loop structure in TbTRF RNAi cells can partially suppress these phenotypes, revealing an underlying mechanism of how TbTRF helps maintain telomere integrity.     

An Active Immune Defense with a Minimal CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) RNA and without the Cas6 Protein

The prokaryotic immune system CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated) is a defense system that protects prokaryotes against foreign DNA. The short CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs) are central components of this immune system. In CRISPR-Cas systems type I and III, crRNAs are generated by the endonuclease Cas6. We developed a Cas6b-independent crRNA maturation pathway for the Haloferax type I-B system in vivo that expresses a functional crRNA, which we termed independently generated crRNA (icrRNA). The icrRNA is effective in triggering degradation of an invader plasmid carrying the matching protospacer sequence. The Cas6b-independent maturation of the icrRNA allowed mutation of the repeat sequence without interfering with signals important for Cas6b processing. We generated 23 variants of the icrRNA and analyzed them for activity in the interference reaction. icrRNAs with deletions or mutations of the 3′ handle are still active in triggering an interference reaction. The complete 3′ handle could be removed without loss of activity. However, manipulations of the 5′ handle mostly led to loss of interference activity. Furthermore, we could show that in the presence of an icrRNA a strain without Cas6b (Δcas6b) is still active in interference.     

Structural and biochemical analysis of nuclease domain of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated protein 3 (Cas3)

RNA transcribed from clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) protects many prokaryotes from invasion by foreign DNA such as viruses, conjugative plasmids, and transposable elements. Cas3 (CRISPR-associated protein 3) is essential for this CRISPR protection and is thought to mediate cleavage of the foreign DNA through its N-terminal histidine-aspartate (HD) domain. We report here the 1.8 Å crystal structure of the HD domain of Cas3 from Thermus thermophilus HB8. Structural and biochemical studies predict that this enzyme binds two metal ions at its active site. We also demonstrate that the single-stranded DNA endonuclease activity of this T. thermophilus domain is activated not by magnesium but by transition metal ions such as manganese and nickel. Structure-guided mutagenesis confirms the importance of the metal-binding residues for the nuclease activity and identifies other active site residues. Overall, these results provide a framework for understanding the role of Cas3 in the CRISPR system.     

Evolution of the B3 DNA Binding Superfamily: New Insights into REM Family Gene Diversification

Background

The B3 DNA binding domain includes five families: auxin response factor (ARF), abscisic acid-insensitive3 (ABI3), high level expression of sugar inducible (HSI), related to ABI3/VP1 (RAV) and reproductive meristem (REM). The release of the complete genomes of the angiosperm eudicots Arabidopsis thaliana and Populus trichocarpa, the monocot Orysa sativa, the bryophyte Physcomitrella patens,the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Volvox carteri and the red algae Cyanidioschyzon melorae provided an exceptional opportunity to study the evolution of this superfamily.

Methodology

In order to better understand the origin and the diversification of B3 domains in plants, we combined comparative phylogenetic analysis with exon/intron structure and duplication events. In addition, we investigated the conservation and divergence of the B3 domain during the origin and evolution of each family.

Conclusions

Our data indicate that showed that the B3 containing genes have undergone extensive duplication events, and that the REM family B3 domain has a highly diverged DNA binding. Our results also indicate that the founding member of the B3 gene family is likely to be similar to the ABI3/HSI genes found in C. reinhardtii and V. carteri. Among the B3 families, ABI3, HSI, RAV and ARF are most structurally conserved, whereas the REM family has experienced a rapid divergence. These results are discussed in light of their functional and evolutionary roles in plant development.     

Locus-specific control of DNA resection and suppression of subtelomeric VSG recombination by HAT3 in the African trypanosome

The African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, is a parasitic protozoan that achieves antigenic variation through DNA-repair processes involving Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) gene rearrangements at subtelomeres. Subtelomeric suppression of DNA repair operates in eukaryotes but little is known about these controls in trypanosomes. Here, we identify a trypanosome histone acetyltransferase (HAT3) and a deacetylase (SIR2rp1) required for efficient RAD51-dependent homologous recombination. HAT3 and SIR2rp1 were required for RAD51-focus assembly and disassembly, respectively, at a chromosome-internal locus and a synthetic defect indicated distinct contributions to DNA repair. Although HAT3 promoted chromosome-internal recombination, it suppressed subtelomeric VSG recombination, and these locus-specific effects were mediated through differential production of ssDNA by DNA resection; HAT3 promoted chromosome-internal resection but suppressed subtelomeric resection. Consistent with the resection defect, HAT3 was specifically required for the G₂-checkpoint response at a chromosome-internal locus. HAT3 also promoted resection at a second chromosome-internal locus comprising tandem-duplicated genes. We conclude that HAT3 and SIR2rp1 can facilitate temporally distinct steps in DNA repair. HAT3 promotes ssDNA formation and recombination at chromosome-internal sites but has the opposite effect at a subtelomeric VSG. These locus-specific controls reveal compartmentalization of the T. brucei genome in terms of the DNA-damage response and suppression of antigenic variation by HAT3.