Island history affects faunal composition: the treeshrews (Mammalia: Scandentia: Tupaiidae) from the Mentawai and Batu Islands,Indonesia

The Mentawai and Batu Island groups off the west coast of Sumatra have a complicated geological and biogeographical history. The Batu Islands have shared a connection with the Sumatran ‘mainland’ during periods of lowered sea level, whereas the Mentawai Islands, despite being a similar distance from Sumatra, have remained isolated from Sumatra, and probably from the Batu Islands as well. These contrasting historical relationships to Sumatra have influenced the compositions of the respective mammalian faunas of these island groups. Treeshrews (Scandentia, Tupaiidae) from these islands have, at various times in their history, been recognized as geographically circumscribed populations of a broadly distributed Tupaia glis, subspecies, or distinct species. We used multivariate analyses of measurements from the skull and hands to compare the island populations from Siberut (Mentawai Islands) and Tanahbala (Batu Islands) with the geographically adjacent species from the southern Mentawai Islands (T. chrysogaster) and Sumatra (T. ferruginea). Results from both the skull and manus of the Siberut population show that it is most similar to T. chrysogaster, whereas the Tanahbala population is more similar to T. ferruginea, confirming predictions based on island history. These results are further corroborated by mammae counts. Based on these lines of evidence, we include the Siberut population in T. chrysogaster and the Tanahbala population in T. ferruginea. Our conclusions expand the known distributions of both the Mentawai and Sumatran species. The larger geographical range of the endangered T. chrysogaster has conservation implications for this Mentawai endemic, so populations and habitat should be re‐evaluated on each of the islands it inhabits. However, until such a re‐evaluation is conducted, we recommend that the IUCN Red List status of this species be changed from ‘Endangered’ to ‘Data Deficient’. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 111 , 290–304.     

Mentawai’s endemic,relictual fauna: is it evidence for Pleistocene extinctions on Sumatra?

Aim The four Mentawai islands, south‐west of Sumatra, have long been isolated from the remainder of Sundaland, resulting in a high level of endemism. We examined the distribution of 151 species of the Mentawai Islands in Sundaland and assessed various processes that may have resulted in the various biogeographical patterns. Location Southeast Asia, particularly the Mentawai Islands and nearby large landmasses (Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia). Methods We compared the faunal composition of the Mentawai Islands for selected taxa (43 mammals, 92 reptiles and 16 amphibians) with that of the four nearby large landmasses of Sundaland using morphological comparisons and the most recent molecular phylogenetic analyses available in the literature. These comparisons yielded sister taxa, which were used to simulate species absence data for the four Sundaland landmasses under several scenarios to investigate how patterns of species absence could have arisen. Results In contrast to our expectations, several Mentawai species did not have their closest relatives on neighbouring Sumatra, but rather on the more distant Borneo, Java or Peninsular Malaysia. For mammals, the similarity between species from Mentawai and Borneo was greater than that observed between species from Mentawai and Sumatra. We conclude that the relationships represent traces of species historically distributed throughout Sundaland that became extinct in Sumatra during the Pleistocene. For reptiles and amphibians the observed pattern of species absences generally resembled the simulated pattern expected under the scenario of absence rates increasing with landmass isolation, whereas for mammals we observed more species than expected missing from Java and Sumatra, and fewer than expected from Borneo. Main conclusions The potential extinctions on Sumatra probably had two causes: changes of climate and vegetation during the Pleistocene and environmental impacts from the Toba supervolcanic eruption.     

Preliminary observations of the Mentawai macaque on Siberut Island,Indonesia

During 2 years spent conducting ecological fieldwork on Siberut, the largest and most northerly of the four Mentawai Islands in Indonesia, incidental observations were made of the Mentawai macaque. The Mentawai macaque has been considered variously as a full species similar in some respects to the long-tailed macaque and as a subspecies of the pig-tailed macaque. Evidence is presented that a hitherto undescribed form of the Mentawai macaque occurs on Siberut, and aspects of its ecology and behavior are described.     

How many species of Paradoxurus civets are there? New insights from India and Sri Lanka

Using molecular data and morphological features, we investigated the species limits and genetic diversity among populations of the Asian palm civets of the genus Paradoxurus. Our main objectives were to determine the number of species within Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and to test the validity of the newly proposed species within Paradoxurus zeylonensis. Fragments of two mitochondrial (Cytochrome b, Control Region) and one nuclear (intron 7 of the beta fibrinogen) markers were sequenced from 128 individuals of P. hermaphroditus, P. zeylonensis and Paradoxurus jerdoni. DNA sequences were analysed using phylogenetic and haplotype network methods. Our analyses confirmed that P. hermaphroditus comprises three major clades, which should be recognized as separate species: P. hermaphroditus (Indian and Indochinese regions), Paradoxurus musangus (mainland Southeast Asia, Sumatra, Java and other small Indonesian islands) and Paradoxurus philippinensis (Mentawai Islands, Borneo and the Philippines). Furthermore, we have proposed that there are two subspecies within both P. musangus and P. philippinensis, and there might be at least two or three subspecies within P. hermaphroditus. We found a very low genetic diversity and no geographical structure within P. zeylonensis and did not find any support for splitting P. zeylonensis into several species nor subspecies. Finally, we confirmed that P. jerdoni and P. zeylonensis are sister species.     

Phylogeographic analysis of pigtail macaque populations (Macaca nemestrina) inferred from mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA variation was surveyed in nine populations of the pigtail macaque (Macaca nemestrina), covering all three recognized subspecies in Southeast Asia. To do this, a 2,300 base pair fragment spanning the mitochondrial NAD 3 and NAD 4 genes and flanking tRNA subunits leucine and glycine was targeted for amplification and digested with a battery of 16 restriction endonucleases. Out of a total of 107 individuals, 32 unique haplotypes could be distinguished. Parsimony and neighbor-joining analyses grouped the haplotypes into five strongly supported assemblages representing China/Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, and Siberut. These results indicate that the mainland and island mtDNA haplotypes are strictly and uniquely limited to the geographic ranges of the recognized morphological subspecies. Cladistic and neighbor-joining analyses indicate that inferred phylogenies of mtDNA haplotypes are congruent with subspecies designations. Furthermore, in support of morphological studies, results indicate that the Mentawai macaque is most likely not a distinct species but a subspecies of M. nemestrina. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:35–45, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Clambidae of Sulawesi with reference to the biogeography of the Sunda Islands (Coleoptera, Eucinetoidea)

Abstract. Eight new species of Clambidae from Sulawesi (Celebes), and two new species and a new subspecies from Borneo and Sumatra are described. The emerging distribution patterns reflect the long-standing isolation of Sulawesi from the rest of the Sunda Islands and from the Asian continent. The clambid fauna of Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan Peninsula indicates close faunal-historic contacts.     

Acoustic structure of male loud-calls support molecular phylogeny of Sumatran and Javanese leaf monkeys (genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Presbytis</Emphasis>)

Background  

The degree to which loud-calls in nonhuman primates can be used as a reliable taxonomic tool is the subject of ongoing debate. A recent study on crested gibbons showed that these species can be well distinguished by their songs; even at the population level the authors found reliable differences. Although there are some further studies on geographic and phylogenetic differences in loud-calls of nonhuman primate species, it is unclear to what extent loud-calls of other species have a similar close relation between acoustic structure, phylogenetic relatedness and geographic distance. We therefore conducted a field survey in 19 locations on Sumatra, Java and the Mentawai islands to record male loud-calls of wild surilis (Presbytis), a genus of Asian leaf monkeys (Colobinae) with disputed taxanomy, and compared the structure of their loud-calls with a molecular genetic analysis.     

Heterochrony: The evolution of ontogeny. By Michael L. McKinney and Kenneth J. McNamara. New York: Plenum Press. 1991. XIX + 437 pp. ISBN 0-306-43638-8. $ 49.50 (cloth)

Macaca fascicularis is broadly distributed in Southeast Asia across 30° of latitude and 35° of longitude (Indochinese Peninsula, Isthmus of Kra, Malay Peninsula, Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands, Philippine Islands, and numerous small, neighboring islands). The range is divisible into 1) a core area comprised of mainland Southeast Asia, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java (large land masses interconnected during the last glacial maximum, 18,000 B. P.); 2) shallow-water fringing islands, which are smaller islands connected to the core area during the last glacial maximum; and 3) deep-water fringing islands, which are peripheral islands not connected to the core area during the last glacial maximum. Skull length was used to study effects of latitude and insularity on patterns of size variation. The data are from 802 adult M. fascicularis specimens from 140 core-area localities, 63 shallow-water islands, and 29 deep-water islands. Sex-specific polynomial regressions of skull length on latitude were used to describe skull length variation in the core area. These regressions served as standards for evaluating variation among samples from shallow-water and deep-water islands. The core area exhibits Bergmannian latitudinal size clines through most of the species range. Thus, skull length decreases from about 8°S (Java) to the equator (Sumatra and Borneo), then increases as far north as about 13°N (Isthmus of Kra). Farther north, to the northernmost Indochinese localities at about 17°N, skull length in M. fascicularis decreases with increasing latitude, contrary to Bergmann's rule. Latitudinal size variation in shallow-water fringing islands generally parallels that in the core area. However, skull length tends to be smaller than in the core area at similar latitudes. Deep-water fringing islands are markedly more variable, with relatively small specimens in the Lesser Sunda Islands and relatively large specimens in the Nicobar Islands. These analyses illustrate how a primate species may vary in response to latitudinal temperature variation and to isolation. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Allozyme and morphological variation in two subspecies of Dryas octopetala (Rosaceae)in Alaska

The Alaskan endemic shrub Dryas octopetala ssp. alaskensis and its circumpolar conspecific ssp. octopetala are adapted to closely adjacent habitats in alpine areas of Alaska. These alpine areas form geographically disjunct "islands" among which there are limited opportunities for gene flow. Allozyme electrophoresis and a common garden experiment were used to examine genetic variation between subspecies and among disjunct populations of each subspecies. Overall, allozyme variation in D. octopetala is low with little differentiation among populations or between subspecies. Morphological differences, however, are greater between subspecies than among populations within subspecies. Divergence for a few morphological and life-history characters has apparently occurred in response to strong selection, but without divergence at allozyme loci. The ancestors of both subspecies of D. octopetala in Alaska were isolated during the Pleistocene in the glacial refugia of Alaska and Yukon, which may explain low overall variation. Dryas. o. alaskensis is thought to be a Pleistocene derivative of ssp. octopetala, which may account for the low allozyme divergence between subspecies. Recent restriction to alpine areas may explain the low differentiation among disjunct populations.     

Wallace's Line and plant distributions: two or three phytogeographical areas and where to group Java?

Wallace's Line or its variants divide the Malay Archipelago or Malesia into a western and eastern area, but is this suitable for plant distributions? Indeed, all boundaries satisfactorily divide Malesia into two parts, stopping far more species east or west of a line than disperse over the boundary. However, phenetic analyses (principal components analysis, nonmetric multidimensional scaling analysis and the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean) of 7340 species distributions revealed a stronger partitioning of Malesia into three instead of two regions: the western Sunda Shelf minus Java (Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo), central Wallacea (Philippines, Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, with Java), and the eastern Sahul Shelf (New Guinea). Java always appears to be part of Wallacea, probably because of its mainly dry monsoon climate. The three phytogeographic areas equal the present climatic division of Malesia. An everwet climate exists on the Sunda and Sahul Shelves, whereas most of Wallacea has a yearly dry monsoon. During glacial maxima, the Sunda and Sahul Shelves became land areas connected with Asia and Australia, respectively, whereas sea barriers remained within Wallacea. Consequently, the flora of the two shelves is more homogeneous than the Wallacean flora. Wallacea is a distinct area because it comprises many endemic, drought tolerant floristic elements. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 103 , 531–545.     

Chloroplast DNA phylogeography of Photinia glabra (Rosaceae) in Japan

Climate changes during glacial periods have had significant effects on the present geographic distribution of plant species. To elucidate the evolutionary history of a plant species with a disjunctive distribution, we investigated the geographic distribution patterns of cpDNA haplotypes in Photinia glabra (Rosaceae) growing in broadleaved evergreen forests in Japan. We examined cpDNA in 42 populations of P. glabra sampled over a geographic range that included Kinki and its surrounding areas and the disjunctive regions in the Amakusa Islands. Both areas had unique cpDNA haplotypes. Moreover, the AMOVA revealed that a large proportion of the total variance (51%, P < 0.001) could be explained by differences among these regions. These results suggest a past fragmentation of this plant species into two separate refugia: southwestern Kyushu and Kinki, including the surrounding area, during the Quaternary glacial periods. A particularly interesting result was that in the southern disjunct distribution in the Amakusa Islands, the genetic subdivision (Φ(CT) = 1.00, P < 0.001) appears to lie between the populations from nearly contiguous islands located across a fairway only approximately 80 to 150 m in width.     

Skeletal Variation and Taxonomic Boundaries in the Pen-tailed Treeshrew (Scandentia: Ptilocercidae; Ptilocercus lowii Gray, 1848)

The Pen-tailed Treeshrew, Ptilocercus lowii Gray, 1848, is a small arboreal mammal from Southeast Asia. It is the only extant species of Ptilocercidae and includes two subspecies: P. l. lowii from Borneo and offshore islands, and P. l. continentis from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and smaller islands, including the Batu and Mentawai Islands. Intraspecific taxonomic boundaries in Ptilocercus have yet to be rigorously evaluated using modern morphological methods, so we investigated the morphometric variation between these subspecies using quantitative cranial and postcranial data obtained from museum specimens. Multivariate analyses revealed limited overlap between P. l. lowii and P. l. continentis in cranioskeletal morphospace, indicating some divergence of these two lineages. Future studies should incorporate additional morphological and molecular data to further test whether these lineages represent two distinct species. Recognition of two Ptilocercus species would have conservation implications for both populations, which should be reevaluated across their separate ranges in light of region-specific threats. Additional biological surveys, particularly from undersampled island populations, will be critical in reassessing the distribution and conservation priorities for P. lowii.

     

Molecular markers provide insights into contemporary and historic gene flow for a non‐migratory species

Hairy woodpeckers Picoides villosus are a common, year round resident with distinct plumage and morphological variation across North America. We genotyped 335 individuals at six variable microsatellite loci and analyzed 322 mtDNA control region sequences in order to examine the role of contemporary and historical barriers to gene flow. In addition we combined genetic analyses with ecological niche modelling to test if hairy woodpeckers were isolated in northern refugia (Alaska, Newfoundland and the Queen Charlotte Islands) during the last glacial maximum. Genetic analyses revealed that gene flow among North American hairy woodpecker populations is restricted, but not to the extent predicted for a sedentary species. Populations clustered into two main genetic groups, east and west of the Great Plains in the south and the Rocky Mountains in the north. Contact zones between the two main genetic groups exist in central British Columbia and Washington, but are narrow. Within each group we found additional population structure with genetic breaks between subgroups in the geographic west corresponding to breaks in forested habitat and physical barriers like open expanses of water. Population genetic patterns for hairy woodpeckers have resulted from isolation in multiple southern refugia with the current distribution of genetic groups resulting from post‐glacial expansion and subsequent reduction in gene flow. While populations in Alaska, Newfoundland and the Queen Charlotte Islands are genetically distinct from other populations, we found no evidence of these areas acting as refugia throughout the Pleistocene. Atlantic Canada populations contained unique haplotypes raising the possibility of a separate colonization from the rest of eastern Canada. The endemic subspecies on the island of Newfoundland is not genetically distinct from their closest mainland population unlike the Queen Charlotte Island subspecies.     

Neohyadesia microtricha (Acari: Astigmata: Algophagidae): a new species from the sub-Antarctic

The sub-antarctic mite genus Neohyadesia (Acari: Astigmata) is known from two described taxa: N. signyi from Signy Island (South Orkney Islands, South Atlantic Province), and a subspecies, N. s. punctulata from Ile Kerguelen (South Indian Province). This paper describes a second species distinguishable by, in particular, cuticular microtrichae covering the dorsal surface. The new species, N. microtricha sp. nov., has a similarly disjunct sub-antarctic distribution, occurring on both Marion (SIP) and South Georgia (SAP) islands. A systematic synopsis of the sub-antarctic algophagine mites is given. Accepted: 30 June 2000     

Glacial survival or late glacial colonization? Phylogeography of the root vole (Microtus oeconomus) in north‐west Norway

Aim It has been proposed that the root vole subspecies, Microtus oeconomus finmarchicus, survived the last glacial period on islands on the north‐west coast of Norway. The Norwegian island of Andøya may have constituted the only site with permanent ice‐free conditions. Geological surveys and fossil finds from Andøya demonstrate that survival throughout the last glacial maximum was probably possible for some plants and animals. In this study we aim to infer the recent evolutionary history of Norwegian root vole populations and to evaluate the glacial survival hypothesis. Methods DNA sequence variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was studied in 46 root voles from 19 localities. Location Northern Fennoscandia and north‐west Russia with a focus on islands on the north‐west coast of Norway. Results The phylogeographical analyses revealed two North European phylogroups labelled ‘Andøya’ and ‘Fennoscandia’. The Andøya phylogroup contained root voles from the Norwegian islands of Andøya, Ringvassøya and Reinøya and two localities in north‐west Russia. The Fennoscandian phylogroup encompassed root voles from the three Norwegian islands of Kvaløya, Håkøya and Arnøya and the remaining specimens from Norway, northern Sweden and Finland. Nucleotide diversity within the Andøya and Fennoscandian phylogroups was similar, ranging from 0.5% to 0.7%. Main conclusions Both our genetic data and previously published morphological data are consistent with in situ glacial survival of root voles on Andøya during the last glacial maximum. However, the level of genetic diversity observed in the extant island populations, the past periods of severe climatic conditions on Andøya and the ecology of the root vole are somewhat difficult to reconcile with this model. A biogeographical scenario involving late glacial recolonization along the northern coasts of Russia and Norway therefore represents a viable alternative. Our results demonstrate that complex recolonization and extinction histories can generate intricate phylogeographical patterns and relatively high levels of genetic variation in northern populations.     

Taxonomy,distribution, and status of gibbons (Hylobates) in Southern China and adjacent areas

Gibbons are small and arboreal apes restricted to southeastern tropical and southern subtropical regions in Asia. They are distributed from Assam in the northwest, eastward to south China and Vietnam, south through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Mentawai Islands. Twenty-two genetically distinct populations of gibbons are generally recognized. Gibbons were once widely distributed in China; however, they are now primarily restricted to southern and southwestern Yunnan and Hainan Island. Their widest distribution and greatest species diversity is in Yunnan Province. Gibbons are rare in China and are now listed as a first class endangered species. Four gibbon species inhabit Yunnan Province in southern China. They areH. hoolock, H. lar, H. leucogenys, andH. concolor. There are three subspecies ofH. leucogenys: H. l. leucogenys, H. l. siki, andH. l. gabriellae. OnlyH. l. leucogenys inhabits China. Four subspecies ofH. concolor inhabit China. These areH. c. concolor, H. c. jingdongensis, H. c. furvogaster, andH. c. hainanus. The first three subspecies inhabit Yunnan andH. c. hainanus is found only on Hainan Island.H. lar yunnanensis is the subspecies ofH. lar in southern China.H. hoolock leucogenys is the subspecies ofH. hoolock in southern China.H. concolor jingdongensis, H. concolor furvogaster, andH. lar yunnanensis are all newly proposed subspecies byMa andWang (1986). The data on southern China gibbons presented here is based on an analysis of the skeletons and skins of 49 specimens held at the Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, Yunnan.     

When Thailand was an island – the phylogeny and biogeography of mite harvestmen (Opiliones,Cyphophthalmi, Stylocellidae) in Southeast Asia

Aim To develop a comprehensive explanation for the biological diversity of Southeast Asia, especially in the Wallacea and Sundaland regions. This study focuses on a group of arachnids, mite harvestmen, which are thought to be an extremely old group of endemic animals that have been present in the region since most of its land supposedly formed part of the northern rim of the supercontinent Gondwana. Location Eastern Himalayas, Thai‐Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Sulawesi, and New Guinea. Methods  Approximately 5.6 kb of sequence data were obtained from 110 South‐east Asian Cyphophthalmi specimens. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted under a variety of methods and analytical parameters, and the optimal tree was dated using calibration points derived from fossil data. Event based and paralogy‐free subtree biogeographical analyses were conducted. Results The Southeast Asian family Stylocellidae was recovered as monophyletic, arising on what is now the Thai‐Malay Peninsula and diversifying into three main clades. One clade (Meghalaya, here formally placed in Stylocellidae) expanded north as far as the eastern Himalayas, a second clade entered Borneo and later expanded back across the Sundaland Peninsula to Sumatra, and a third clade expanded out of Borneo into the entire lower part of Sundaland. Molecular dating suggested that Stylocellidae separated from other Cyphophthalmi 295 Ma and began diversifying 258 Ma, and the lineage that inhabits mostly Borneo today began diversifying between 175 and 150 Ma. Main conclusions The topology and molecular dating of our phylogenetic hypothesis suggest that Stylocellidae originated on Gondwana, arrived in Southeast Asia via the Cimmerian palaeocontinent, and subsequently diversified north, then south. Their present distribution in the Indo‐Malay Archipelago is explained largely by a diversification over the Sundaland Peninsula before western Sulawesi departed and the peninsula was extensively inundated.     

A revision of the Siphonocryptidae (Diplopoda, Polyzoniida)

Siphonocryptus compactus Pocock, 1894 (Sumatra), is redescribed from type and fresh material. Siphonocryptus latior sp. n. (Malaya) is described. Hirudicryptus gen. n. (monotypic) is erected, type-species Siphonocryptus canariensis Loksa, 1967 (Canary Islands, Madeira). Arguments for monophyly of Siphonocryptidae (= Siphonocryptus + Hirudicryptus ) and for a sister-group relationship between Siphonocryptidae and all other Polyzoniida arc presented. The strongly disjunct distribution area of the family is compared with other disjunct distributions involving the Canary Islands and Madeira.     

Afrotropics on the wing: phylogenomics and historical biogeography of awl and policeman skippers

The Old‐World Tropics encompass many unique biomes and associated biotas shaped by drastic climate and geological changes throughout the Cenozoic. Disjunct distributions of clades between the Afrotropics and the Oriental regions are testament to these changes. Awl and policeman skippers (Hesperiidae: Coeliadinae) are disjunctly distributed with some genera endemic to the Afrotropics and others restricted to the Oriental and Australian regions. We reconstruct the phylogeny of these butterflies using target exon capture phylogenomics. We also generate a dated framework for this clade that uses the putatively oldest known butterfly fossil to estimate the historical biogeography of Coeliadinae using a model‐based approach. We infer a stable and robust phylogeny for the subfamily, with all but one Afrotropical lineage forming a derived clade. The African genus Pyrrhiades syn. nov. is placed in synonymy with Coeliades to accommodate the new phylogeny. Our comparative dating exercise casts doubt on the assignment of the fossil Protocoeliades kristenseni as a derived Coeliadinae and suggests, along with our biogeographic estimation, a split of Coeliadinae from the rest of skippers in the Palaeocene ca. 70 million years ago. The origin of crown Coeliadinae skippers is estimated in Indomalaya during the late Eocene ca. 36 million years ago, with subsequent Oligocene colonisation events toward the Australian region and the Afrotropics. Colonisation of the Afrotropics from the Indian region occurred during climatic transition, associated biome shifts, and the closure of the Tethys Ocean, which likely allowed geodispersal through the Arabian Peninsula. The current disjunct distribution of Coeliadinae in the Old World Tropics may result from the emergence of savannahs in the Miocene that progressively replaced woodlands and forests in the Arabian Peninsula and western Asia. Coeliadinae skippers are almost exclusively dicot feeders and were likely extirpated as grasslands became dominant, resulting in the present‐day disjunct distribution of these butterflies.     

The pseudoscorpions of New Zealand,Norfolk, and Lord Howe

Nearly 20 000 specimens of pseudoscorpions from a full range of habitats have been examined. For New Zealand, 70 species and subspecies in 28 genera are recognised, and for Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands, 11 species in 9 genera. Endemism is very high in this area: in New Zealand, 13 out of 25 indigenous genera are endemic; 2 others (Apatochernes, Nesochernes) are shared with Norfolk Island; and 4 (Sathrochthonius, Austrochthonius, Synsphyronus, Protochelifer) extend their distribution to Australia (Austrochthonius is known also from South America and South Africa). The rest of the native genera have a wider distribution in the Pacific. Three species (Lamprochernes savignyi, Withius subruber, Chelifer cancroides) have a wide and disjunct distribution induced by human traffic, and are considered to be an introduced element.