Loss-of-function variants of the human melanocortin-1 receptor gene in melanoma cells define structural determinants of receptor function.

The alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alphaMSH) receptor (MC1R) is a major determinant of mammalian skin and hair pigmentation. Binding of alphaMSH to MC1R in human melanocytes stimulates cell proliferation and synthesis of photoprotective eumelanin pigments. Certain MC1R alleles have been associated with increased risk of melanoma. This can be theoretically considered on two grounds. First, gain-of-function mutations may stimulate proliferation, thus promoting dysplastic lesions. Second, and opposite, loss-of-function mutations may decrease eumelanin contents, and impair protection against the carcinogenic effects of UV light, thus predisposing to skin cancers. To test these possibilities, we sequenced the MC1R gene from seven human melanoma cell (HMC) lines and three giant congenital nevus cell (GCNC) cultures. Four HMC lines and two GCNC cultures contained MC1R allelic variants. These were the known loss-of-function Arg142His and Arg151Cys alleles and a new variant, Leu93Arg. Moreover, impaired response to a superpotent alphaMSH analog was demonstrated for the cell line carrying the Leu93Arg allele and for a HMC line homozygous for wild-type MC1R. Functional analysis in heterologous cells stably or transiently expressing this variant demonstrated that Leu93Arg is a loss-of-function mutation abolishing agonist binding. These results, together with site-directed mutagenesis of the vicinal Glu94, demonstrate that the MC1R second transmembrane fragment is critical for agonist binding and maintenance of a resting conformation, whereas the second intracellular loop is essential for coupling to the cAMP system. Therefore, loss-of-function, but not activating MC1R mutations are common in HMC. Their study provides important clues to understand MC1R structure-function relationships.     

High polymorphism at the human melanocortin 1 receptor locus

Variation in human skin/hair pigmentation is due to varied amounts of eumelanin (brown/black melanins) and phaeomelanin (red/yellow melanins) produced by the melanocytes. The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is a regulator of eu- and phaeomelanin production in the melanocytes, and MC1R mutations causing coat color changes are known in many mammals. We have sequenced the MC1R gene in 121 individuals sampled from world populations with an emphasis on Asian populations. We found variation at five nonsynonymous sites (resulting in the variants Arg67Gln, Asp84Glu, Val92Met, Arg151Cys, and Arg163Gln), but at only one synonymous site (A942G). Interestingly, the human consensus protein sequence is observed in all 25 African individuals studied, but at lower frequencies in the other populations examined, especially in East and Southeast Asians. The Arg163Gln variant is absent in the Africans studied, almost absent in Europeans, and at a low frequency (7%) in Indians, but is at an exceptionally high frequency (70%) in East and Southeast Asians. The MC1R gene in common and pygmy chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutan, and baboon was sequenced to study the evolution of MC1R. The ancestral human MC1R sequence is identical to the human consensus protein sequence, while MC1R varies considerably among higher primates. A comparison of the rates of substitution in genes in the melanocortin receptor family indicates that MC1R has evolved the fastest. In addition, the nucleotide diversity at the MC1R locus is shown to be several times higher than the average nucleotide diversity in human populations, possibly due to diversifying selection.     

Agonist-independent, high constitutive activity of the human melanocortin 1 receptor

The melanocortins (alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotropin) act on epidermal melanocytes to increase melanogenesis, the eumelanin/pheomelanin ratio and dendricity. These actions are mediated by the heptahelical melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), positively coupled to adenylyl cyclase. Gain-of-function mouse Mc1r alleles are associated with a dark, eumelanic coat. Conversely, loss-of-function variants, or overexpression of agouti, a natural melanocortin antagonist, yield yellow, pheomelanic furs. In humans, loss-of-function MC1R variants are associated with fair skin, poor tanning, propensity to freckle and increased skin cancer risk. Therefore, MC1R is a key regulator of mammalian pigmentation. Several observations such as induction of constitutive pigmentation in amelanotic mouse melanoma cells following expression of MC1R indicate that the receptor might display agonist-independent activity. We report a systematic and comparative study of MC1R and Mc1r constitutive activity. We show that expression of MC1R in heterologous systems leads to an agonist-independent increase in cyclic adenosine monophophate (cAMP). Basal signalling is a function of receptor expression and is two to fourfold higher for MC1R than for Mc1r. Moreover, it is observed in human melanoma cells over-expressing the MC1R. Constitutive signalling is abolished or reduced by point mutations of MC1R impairing the response to agonists, and is only doubled by the Lys94Glu mutation, mimicking the constitutively active mouse E(so-3J) allele. Stable or transient expression of wild-type MC1R, but not of loss-of-function mutants, potently stimulates forskolin activation of adenylyl cyclase, a common feature of constitutively active Gs-coupled receptors. Therefore, human MC1R displays a strong agonist-independent constitutive activity.     

Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R

It is widely assumed that genes that influence variation in skin and hair pigmentation are under selection. To date, the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is the only gene identified that explains substantial phenotypic variance in human pigmentation. Here we investigate MC1R polymorphism in several populations, for evidence of selection. We conclude that MC1R is under strong functional constraint in Africa, where any diversion from eumelanin production (black pigmentation) appears to be evolutionarily deleterious. Although many of the MC1R amino acid variants observed in non-African populations do affect MC1R function and contribute to high levels of MC1R diversity in Europeans, we found no evidence, in either the magnitude or the patterns of diversity, for its enhancement by selection; rather, our analyses show that levels of MC1R polymorphism simply reflect neutral expectations under relaxation of strong functional constraint outside Africa.     

Melanin content and MC1R function independently affect UVR-induced DNA damage in cultured human melanocytes

Malignant transformation of melanocytes leads to melanoma, the most fatal form of skin cancer. Ultraviolet radiation (UVR)-induced DNA photoproducts play an important role in melanomagenesis. Cutaneous melanin content represents a major photoprotective mechanism against UVR-induced DNA damage, and generally correlates inversely with the risk of skin cancer, including melanoma. Melanoma risk is also determined by susceptibility genes, one of which is the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene. Certain MC1R alleles are strongly associated with melanoma. We hereby present experimental evidence for the role of two melanoma risk factors, constitutive pigmentation, as assessed by total melanin, eumelanin and pheomelanin contents, and MC1R genotype and function, in determining the induction and repair of DNA photoproducts in cultured human melanocytes after irradiation with increasing doses of UVR. We found that total melanin and eumelanin contents (MC and EC) correlated inversely with the extent of UVR-induced growth arrest, apoptosis and induction of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD), but not with hydrogen peroxide release in melanocytes expressing functional MC1R. In comparison, melanocytes with loss-of-function MC1R, regardless of their MC or EC, sustained more UVR-induced apoptosis and CPD, and exhibited reduced CPD repair. Therefore, MC, mainly EC, and MC1R function are independent determinants of UVR-induced DNA damage in melanocytes.     

肤色、黑色素皮质素受体1和紫外线

近期的研究表明,哺乳动物黑素细胞中黑色素皮质素受体1（MC1R）对调节棕黑色素和红黄色素的合成起关键的作用。MC1R基因的变异与动物的皮毛、人的皮肤和头发颜色差异密切相关。对小鼠的遗传学研究显示,MC1R是独特的、双功能控制受体。它由α-促黑色素皮质激素激活,其拮抗物为agouti蛋白,二者的共同作用导致哺乳动物表皮颜色的变异。另外,人类皮肤的色素沉着是决定于皮肤对外辐射的反应,以及由此引发皮肤癌的重要因素。MC1R变异与黑色素癌易感性相关。 Genotype,Melanocortin 1 Receptor and Ultrviolet Radiation Lü Xue-mei,SHI Peng,ZHANG Ya-ping Lab of Cellular & Molecular Evolution,Kunming Institute of Zoology,the Chinese Academy of Sciences,Kunming 650223,China Abstract:Recent work on the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) suggests that MC1R plays a central role in regulation of eumelanin (brwon/black melanins) and phaeomelanin (red/yellow melanins) synthesis within the mammalian melanocyte.In the mouse,genetic studies show that the MC1R appears to be a unique,bifunctionally controlled receptor,activated by α–MSH and antagonized by agouti,both of which contribute to the variability seen in mammalian coat color.Variants of this receptor are associated with different animal's coat,human skin and hair colors.In addition,cutaneous pigmentation is a major determinant of the cutaneous response to ultraviolet radiation,and consequently of the risk of developing skin cancer.MC1R variants are a risk factor for melanoma susceptibility. Key words：Melanocortin-1 receptor gene; MC1R variants; ultraviolet radiation; skin and hair colors; skin cancer     

MC1R and the response of melanocytes to ultraviolet radiation

The constitutive color of our skin plays a dramatic role in our photoprotection from solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) that reaches the Earth and in minimizing DNA damage that gives rise to skin cancer. More than 120 genes have been identified and shown to regulate pigmentation, one of the key genes being melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) that encodes the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), a seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor expressed on the surface of melanocytes. Modulation of MC1R function regulates melanin synthesis by melanocytes qualitatively and quantitatively. The MC1R is regulated by the physiological agonists alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alphaMSH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and antagonist agouti signaling protein (ASP). Activation of the MC1R by binding of an agonist stimulates the synthesis of eumelanin primarily via activation of adenylate cyclase. The significance of cutaneous pigmentation lies in the photoprotective effect of melanin, particularly eumelanin, against sun-induced carcinogenesis. Epidermal melanocytes and keratinocytes respond to UVR by increasing their expression of alphaMSH and ACTH, which up-regulate the expression of MC1R, and consequently enhance the response of melanocytes to melanocortins. Constitutive skin pigmentation dramatically affects the incidence of skin cancer. The pigmentary phenotype characterized by red hair, fair complexion, inability to tan and tendency to freckle is an independent risk factor for all skin cancers, including melanoma. The MC1R gene is highly polymorphic in human populations, and allelic variation at this locus accounts, to a large extent, for the variation in pigmentary phenotypes and skin phototypes (SPT) in humans. Several allelic variants of the MC1R gene are associated with the red hair and fair skin (RHC) phenotype, and carrying one of these variants is thought to diminish the ability of the epidermis to respond to DNA damage elicited by UVR. The MC1R gene is considered a melanoma susceptibility gene, and its significance in determining the risk for skin cancer is of tremendous interest.     

Evolution of a pigmentation gene,the melanocortin-1 receptor,in primates

The melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) forms a critical switch in the production of orange/red pheomelanin and black/brown eumelanin pigments during hair development in mammals. The molecular evolution of the melanocortin-1 receptor gene was investigated in a broad range of primate species, including several groups with large differences in distribution of orange/red and black hairs. Primate MC1R has been subject to purifying selection throughout most of its evolution, with small changes in selective constraint being detected early in primate evolution. In contrast to the situation in humans and domestic mammals, many intraspecific and intrageneric differences in primate coat color cannot be attributed to changes in the MC1R coding sequence. Nevertheless, important changes in the biochemical function of MC1R are suggested by mutations in sites of known functional importance, particularly in New World monkeys and lemurs. The evolution of the MC1R in lion tamarins is anomalous, with a combination of a high nonsynonymous to synonymous substitution rate (dN/dS) ratio, deletions, and substitutions.     

Diversity of pigmentation in cultured human melanocytes is due to differences in the type as well as quantity of melanin

Cultured human melanocytes differ tremendously in visual pigmentation, and recapitulate the pigmentary phenotype of the donor's skin. This diversity arises from variation in type as well as quantity of melanin produced. Here, we measured contents of eumelanin (EM) and pheomelanin (PM) in 60 primary human melanocyte cultures (51 neonatal and nine adults), and correlated some of these values with the respective activity and protein levels of tyrosinase, and the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) genotype. Melanocytes were classified into four phenotypes (L, L+, D, D+) as depicted by visual pigmentation using light microscopy, and by the pigmentary phenotype of the donor's skin. There were large differences in total melanin (TM) and EM, which increased progressively for L, L+, D and D+ melanocytes. TM content, the sum of EM and PM, showed a good correlation with TM measured spectrophotometrically, and with the activity and protein levels of tyrosinase. Log EM/PM ratio did not correlate with MC1R genotype. We conclude that: (i) EM consistently correlates with the visual phenotype; (ii) lighter melanocytes tend to be more pheomelanic in composition than darker melanocytes; (iii) in adult melanocyte cultures, EM correlates with the ethnic background of the donors (African-American > Indian > Caucasian); and (iv) MC1R loss-of-function mutations do not necessarily alter the phenotype of cultured melanocytes.     

MC1R,the cAMP pathway,and the response to solar UV: extending the horizon beyond pigmentation

The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is a G protein‐coupled receptor crucial for the regulation of melanocyte proliferation and function. Upon binding melanocortins, MC1R activates several signaling cascades, notably the cAMP pathway leading to synthesis of photoprotective eumelanin. Polymorphisms in the MC1R gene are a major source of normal variation of human hair color and skin pigmentation, response to ultraviolet radiation (UVR), and skin cancer susceptibility. The identification of a surprisingly high number of MC1R natural variants strongly associated with pigmentary phenotypes and increased skin cancer risk has prompted research on the functional properties of the wild‐type receptor and frequent mutant alleles. We summarize current knowledge on MC1R structural and functional properties, as well as on its intracellular trafficking and signaling. We also review the current knowledge about the function of MC1R as a skin cancer, particularly melanoma, susceptibility gene and how it modulates the response of melanocytes to UVR.     

Melanocortin receptor 1 (MC1R) mutations and coat color in pigs.

The melanocortin receptor 1 (MC1R) plays a central role in regulation of eumelanin (black/brown) and phaeomelanin (red/yellow) synthesis within the mammalian melanocyte and is encoded by the classical Extension (E) coat color locus. Sequence analysis of MC1R from seven porcine breeds revealed a total of four allelic variants corresponding to five different E alleles. The European wild boar possessed a unique MC1R allele that we believe is required for the expression of a wild-type coat color. Two different MC1R alleles were associated with the dominant black color in pigs. MC1R*2 was found in European Large Black and Chinese Meishan pigs and exhibited two missense mutations compared with the wild-type sequence. Comparative data strongly suggest that one of these, L99P, may form a constitutively active receptor. MC1R*3 was associated with the black color in the Hampshire breed and involved a single missense mutation D121N. This same MC1R variant was also associated with EP, which results in black spots on a white or red background. Two different missense mutations were identified in recessive red (e/e) animals. One of these, A240T, occurs at a highly conserved position, making it a strong candidate for disruption of receptor function.     

Molecular variation in pigmentation genes contributing to coat colour in native Korean Hanwoo cattle

Pigmentation genes such as TYR (tyrosinase), TYRP1 (tyrosinase-related protein 1), DCT (previously TYRP2, or tyrosinase-related protein 2), ASIP (agouti) and MC1R (melanocortin receptor 1) play a major role in cattle coat colour. To understand the genotypic profile underlying coat colour in native Korean Hanwoo cattle and Angus black cattle, portions of the above-mentioned genes were amplified. Sequence analysis revealed variation in the TYRP1 (exon 5) and MC1R genes. Restriction enzyme analysis of these two genes could distinguish between different colours of Hanwoo cattle. Quantitative estimates of melanin and eumelanin in hair from three different-coloured Hanwoo phenotypes and Angus black showed significant differences at the breed and phenotypic levels. Finally, sequence variants in MC1R were associated with total melanin and eumelanin in breeds as well as in Hanwoo phenotypes.     

Worldwide polymorphism at the MC1R locus and normal pigmentation variation in humans

While there have been many advances in our understanding of the genetics of pathological skin pigmentation in humans, our knowledge about what determines variation in normal skin color is still incomplete. Variation in one gene, melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), has been associated with red hair and fair skin in Europeans. However, this gene might also play an important role in shaping pigmentation of other human populations, where it experiences different selective pressures. Below we review what is currently known about polymorphism and selection at the MC1R coding and promoter regions in human populations, the pattern of MC1R evolution in nonhuman primates, and the interaction of MC1R with other genes.     

Agonist‐Independent,High Constitutive Activity of the Human Melanocortin 1 Receptor

The melanocortins (α‐melanocyte‐stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotropin) act on epidermal melanocytes to increase melanogenesis, the eumelanin/pheomelanin ratio and dendricity. These actions are mediated by the heptahelical melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), positively coupled to adenylyl cyclase. Gain‐of‐function mouse Mc1r alleles are associated with a dark, eumelanic coat. Conversely, loss‐of‐function variants, or overexpression of agouti, a natural melanocortin antagonist, yield yellow, pheomelanic furs. In humans, loss‐of‐function MC1R variants are associated with fair skin, poor tanning, propensity to freckle and increased skin cancer risk. Therefore, MC1R is a key regulator of mammalian pigmentation. Several observations such as induction of constitutive pigmentation in amelanotic mouse melanoma cells following expression of MC1R indicate that the receptor might display agonist‐independent activity. We report a systematic and comparative study of MC1R and Mc1r constitutive activity. We show that expression of MC1R in heterologous systems leads to an agonist‐independent increase in cyclic adenosine monophophate (cAMP). Basal signalling is a function of receptor expression and is two to fourfold higher for MC1R than for Mc1r. Moreover, it is observed in human melanoma cells over‐expressing the MC1R. Constitutive signalling is abolished or reduced by point mutations of MC1R impairing the response to agonists, and is only doubled by the Lys94Glu mutation, mimicking the constitutively active mouse E^so‐3J allele. Stable or transient expression of wild‐type MC1R, but not of loss‐of‐function mutants, potently stimulates forskolin activation of adenylyl cyclase, a common feature of constitutively active Gs‐coupled receptors. Therefore, human MC1R displays a strong agonist‐independent constitutive activity.     

The genetics of sun sensitivity in humans

Humans vary >100-fold in their sensitivity to the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation. The main determinants of sensitivity are melanin pigmentation and less-well-characterized differences in skin inflammation and repair processes. Pigmentation has a high heritability, but susceptibility to cancers of the skin, a key marker of sun sensitivity, is less heritable. Despite a large number of murine coat-color mutations, only one gene in humans, the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), is known to account for substantial variation in skin and hair color and in skin cancer incidence. MC1R encodes a 317-amino acid G-coupled receptor that controls the relative amounts of the two major melanin classes, eumelanin and pheomelanin. Most persons with red hair are homozygous for alleles of the MC1R gene that show varying degrees of diminished function. More than 65 human MC1R alleles with nonsynonymous changes have been identified, and current evidence suggests that many of them vary in their physiological activity, such that a graded series of responses can be achieved on the basis of (i) dosage effects (of one or two alleles) and (ii) individual differences in the pharmacological profile in response to ligand. Thus, a single locus, identified within a Mendelian framework, can contribute significantly to human pigmentary variation.     

Lack of somatic alterations of MC1R in primary melanoma

Germline variation of the melanocortin 1 receptor gene (MC1R) is a risk factor for cutaneous melanoma. Recent studies have indicated that the risk is significantly higher for melanomas with somatic BRAF mutations, suggesting that MC1R variants may have a more specific role than their demonstrated effects on skin and hair pigmentation. To address the possibility that MC1R may act like a tumor suppressor gene by creating a permissive condition for melanocytes with specific somatic mutations to proliferate or survive, we analyzed 103 primary melanomas for somatic MC1R mutations and copy number alterations. This cohort included melanomas from skin with and without chronic sun-induced damage, mucosal membranes, and acral skin (palms, soles, and subungual). We did not find somatic mutations or frequent DNA copy number alterations at the MC1R locus, nor any skewed pattern of copy number alterations that would favor one allele type over the other. In conclusion, our findings indicate that MC1R is not a frequent target of somatic alterations in melanoma.     

Skin phototype: a new perspective

Cutaneous phototype is considered mainly related to cutaneous pigmentation and to the eumelanin/pheomelanin ratio, which is mostly genetically determined by the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) polymorphisms. However, data in literature indicate that, in addition to stimulation of eumelanin synthesis, the MC1R signalling activates antioxidant, DNA repair and survival pathways. New emerging aspects regarding photoprotection and skin phototypes are going beyond those features connected to the melanin content in the skin. Important new findings link the MC1R to nuclear receptors activation, shedding light on new extra‐melanogenic effects dependent on the α‐melanocyte‐stimulating hormone (α‐MSH) activity and new ways through which such functions are modulated. These evidences indicate that several factors including melanin play a part in defining the basis for individual sun sensitivity, suggesting that the cutaneous phototype represents a ‘biochemical fingerprint’.     

Functional status and relationships of melanocortin 1 receptor signaling to the cAMP and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 pathways in human melanoma cells

Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), a major determinant of skin phototype frequently mutated in melanoma, is a Gs protein-coupled receptor that regulates pigment production in melanocytes. MC1R stimulation activates cAMP synthesis and the extracellular signal-regulated (ERK) ERK1 and ERK2. In human melanocytes, ERK activation by MC1R relies on cAMP-independent transactivation of the c-KIT receptor. Thus MC1R functional coupling to the cAMP and ERK pathways may involve different structural requirements giving raise to biased effects of skin cancer-associated mutations. We evaluated the impact of MC1R mutations on ERK activation, cAMP production and agonist binding. We found that MC1R mutations impair cAMP production much more often than ERK activation, suggesting less stringent requirements for functional coupling to the ERK pathway. We examined the crosstalk of the cAMP and ERK pathways in HBL human melanoma cells (wild-type for MC1R, NRAS and BRAF). ERK activation by constitutively active upstream effectors or pharmacological inhibition had little effect on MC1R-stimulated cAMP synthesis. High cAMP levels were compatible with normal ERK activation but, surprisingly, the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin abolished ERK activation by MC1R, most likely by a cAMP-independent mechanism. These results indicate little crosstalk of the cAMP and ERK pathways in HBL melanoma cells. Finally, we studied cAMP accumulation in a panel of 22 human melanoma cell lines stimulated with MC1R agonists or forskolin. cAMP synthesis was often inhibited, even in cells wild-type for MC1R and NRAS. Therefore, the cAMP pathway is more frequently impaired in melanoma than could be predicted by the MC1R or NRAS genotype.     

Rate limiting factors in melanocortin 1 receptor signalling through the cAMP pathway

The melanotropic actions of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) and other melanocortins are mediated by activation of the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R). This G protein-coupled receptor is positively coupled to Gs and triggers the cyclic adenosine mono-phosphate (cAMP) pathway. Mutations of the MC1R gene are associated with skin type and pigmentation phenotypes, and with increased risk of skin cancers. Genetic studies have demonstrated an heterozygote carrier effect for these associations, suggesting the importance of variant allele dosage. This could be accounted for, at least partially, if the number of MC1R molecules, rather than the Gs protein or the effector enzyme, adenylyl cyclase, is limiting for the activation of the signalling pathway. However, the nature of the limiting factor(s) in MC1R signalling has not been investigated. We addressed this question by comparing the cAMP output of clones of human melanoma cell lines enriched in MC1R by stable transfection. We also analysed heterologous cell systems widely used for functional studies of MC1R. We show that cAMP production in clones of Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing the MC1R is a linear function of receptor number up to high, supraphysiological levels of approximately 50,000 alpha-MSH binding sites per cell. Enrichment of human melanoma cell lines with MC1R also results in increased cAMP levels, with a small leftward shift of the agonist dose-response curves. Therefore, at physiological expression levels second-messenger generation is dependent on receptor density. Within melanoma cells and also likely in normal melanocytes, MC1R appears the limiting factor controlling the output of the cAMP signalling pathway.