Factors Affecting Grain Enlargement in Wheat

When most of the grains were removed from wheat ears the remaininggrains developed increased numbers of aleurone and endospermcells, and the increased grain volume was accompanied by anenlarged endosperm cavity. The giant grains usually synthesizedstarch more rapidly than normal grains. Flag leaf photosynthesiswas unaffected and additional sugar was retained in the culmand glumes. Total nitrogen and free amino acid content increased.Gibberellin and auxin concentrations were greater in the glumesof the partly degrained ears, and auxin in the grains was alsogreater than in equivalent grains from intact ears.     

Manipulation Through Liquid Culture in the Contents of Sucrose and Glutamine and Their Transformation to Starch and Protein in Wheat Grain

Detached ears of wheat were cultured in liquid medium manipulated for sucrose and glutamine contents, and the accumulation of starch and protein in relation to the activities of sucrose cleaving—, ammonia assimilating—, and transaminating enzymes was studied in the grain. With an increase in the concentrations of sucrose from 44 to 176 mM and glutamine from 6.4 to 25.7 mM (keeping their ratio at a constant value of 7:1), the contents of starch and protein increased in the grains. However, when the grains were cultured in the medium containing 8.5 to 34 mM glutamine and a fixed concentration of 117 mM sucrose, there was a gradual increase in protein and decrease in starch content in the grain. By such manipulation in the liquid medium, the content of free amino acids also increased in the grain up to 12 days culturing. Amongst sucrose cleaving enzymes, the activities of sucrose-UDP glucosyl transferase and soluble alkaline invertase were much lower than the activity of soluble acid invertase. At high concentration (34 mM) of glutamine in the medium, containing 117 mM sucrose, there was drastic decrease in the activities of soluble acid invertase and UDPG pyrophosphorylase but the activities of ADPG pyrophosphorylase, alkaline inorganic pyrophosphatase, glutamate dehydrogenase, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase and glutamate pyruvate transaminase increased in the grain with increase in glutamine concentration in the culture medium. Evidently, an increase in the level of amino nitrogen, coupled with an optimum sucrose concentration in the grain raised through liquid culturing enhances the conversion of sucrose to protein at the cost of starch accumulation in wheat.     

麦田3种杂草种子的破眠(简报)

研究麦田常见的3种杂草破眠的结果表明,4-35℃的变温处理、O．3％赤霉素浸泡2h、3．6％盐酸浸泡30min（发芽率达到58．0％）均可打破播娘蒿种子的休眠;9、8％硫酸处理10min、6．6％硝酸处理35min、30％双氧水处理40min、3．6％盐酸处理30min（发芽率达到60．0％）也均可打破野燕麦种子的休眠;麦仁珠种子则以浓盐酸处理5min的破除休眠效果最好,发芽率达到72、0％。     

Grain Growth Dynamics in Winter Wheat Crops

A procedure for analysing the dynamics of grain growth is developedand applied to data from winter wheat crops. The algorithm estimatesgrowth rate in relation to local data and preserves a shapethrough the whole growth curve by optimization subject to physiologically-justifiedconstraints: that grain growth rate decreases monotonically,and that there is a discontinuity to zero rate at physiologicalmaturity. It is assumed that effects of temperature can be allowedfor by expressing growth in relation to thermal time, accumulatedtemperature above a base temperature. Conditions are derivedunder which an optimal base temperature for grain growth rateexists under these physiological constraints. When applied todata from crops with different sowing dates and nitrogen treatmentsin different years, weak optimal base temperatures of 2.0 and7.5 °C were obtained for growth rate and duration, respectively.Initial growth rates were similar for all crops, but there wereconsiderable variations in rate later in grain growth. Thesevariations were, in part, related to the overall crop growthrate divided by the number of grains. Grain growth, modelling, winter wheat     

Physiological Factors Limiting Grain Size in Wheat

The effects on grain size of changing the supply of assimilates,by thinning before anthesis or by shading the plants or by halvingthe ears either early or late in grain growth, were studiedin two glasshouse experiments with Kleiber spring wheat (Triticumaestivum L.), in 1976 and 1977. Late treatments had no effect,presumably because little grain growth occurred thereafter.Thinning the plants before anthesis increased, and shading theplants soon after anthesis decreased grain size. Halving theears soon after anthesis increased the size of the remaininggrains, but grain weight per ear decreased. The effect on grainsize of halving the ear tended to be smaller under conditionsmore favourable for photosynthesis, except when the plants werethinned before anthesis. Shading decreased the total amountof nitrogen per culm and the proportion of total nitrogen recoveredin the ear. Halving increased the retention of nitrogen in thestem of unshaded shoots and had no effect on nitrogen distributionwithin shaded shoots. In 1977 halving the ear increased the rate of dry matter accumulationin the grain throughout the grain filling period, but in 1976the increase in dry weight was faster in the grains of halvedears only during early grain growth. Later the grains in halvedand intact ears increased in dry weight at the same rate, eventhough the supply of photosynthate and the capacity of the grains(as measured by volume) were greater in the halved ears. Theseresults are discussed in relation to the influence on finalgrain weight of assimilate supply and the storage capacity ofthe grain.     

Mitochondrial Efficiency and Grain Yield in Wheat

Mitochondrial ADP/O and RC ratios have been determined in two-day-oldshoots of nine wheat (Triticum aestivum) varieties of knownaverage grain yield. Both ratios were highly correlated withaverage grain yield. ADP/O and RC ratios of germinating shootswere also correlated with yield within a variety when yieldwas varied by irrigation and different nitrogen fertilizer treatments.It is proposed that the observed correlations are the resultof mitochondrial ADP/O and RC ratios being partly controlledduring germination directly or indirectly by seed-based metabolismwhich reflects the metabolic activity and total carbohydratedeposited in seed during seed formation.     

Genetic Dissection of Grain Size and Grain Number Trade-Offs in CIMMYT Wheat Germplasm

Grain weight (GW) and number per unit area of land (GN) are the primary components of grain yield in wheat. In segregating populations both yield components often show a negative correlation among themselves. Here we use a recombinant doubled haploid population of 105 individuals developed from the CIMMYT varieties Weebill and Bacanora to understand the relative contribution of these components to grain yield and their interaction with each other. Weebill was chosen for its high GW and Bacanora for high GN. The population was phenotyped in Mexico, Argentina, Chile and the UK. Two loci influencing grain yield were indicated on 1B and 7B after QTL analysis. Weebill contributed the increasing alleles. The 1B effect, which is probably caused by to the 1BL.1RS rye introgression in Bacanora, was a result of increased GN, whereas, the 7B QTL controls GW. We concluded that increased in GW from Weebill 7B allele is not accompanied by a significant reduction in grain number. The extent of the GW and GN trade-off is reduced. This makes this locus an attractive target for marker assisted selection to develop high yielding bold grain varieties like Weebill. AMMI analysis was used to show that the 7B Weebill allele appears to contribute to yield stability.     

Mitochondrial Complementation and Grain Yield in Hybrid Wheat

ADP/O ratios, cytochrome c oxidase and adenosine triphosphatasehave been measured in mitochondria and mixtures of mitochondriaisolated from two day-old shoots of wheat of known F₁ hybridgrain yield performance. Mixtures of mitochondria from two varieties,Peko and Cappelle-Desprez, which have considerable F₁ hybridyield heterosis, showed a significantly increased ADP/O ratioover the mean value for mitochondria from the varieties assayedindividually, i.e. these varieties showed ‘mitochondrialcomplementation’. No mitochondrial complementation wasdetected for cytochrome c oxidase or adenosine triphosphatase.In other mitochondrial mixtures no complementation in ADP/Oratios were found even when the varieties showed F₁ hybrid yieldheterosis. Mitochondrial ADP/O ratios were studied in six varietiesindividually and in mixtures. In only one mixture was any significantcomplementation detected. However, when all the results wereconsidered together, mitochondrial complementation was significantlycorrelated with F₁ hybrid grain yield heterosis when the plantswere grown at a low seed density but not at a high seed density.New hypotheses are offered to account for mitochondrial complementationand its statistical relationship with yield heterosis.     

The Effects of Floret Sterilization on Grain Number and Grain Weight in Wheat Ears

This paper describes the effects of sterilizing certain floretson the development of others within the ears of wheat, cultivarMaris Ranger. Sterilization of all the florets in spikelets2, 4, 6, and 8 (numbered from the base of the ear upwards) ledto more grain setting and greater grain growth in the untreatedspikelets. These compensatory increases were insufficient toprevent a depression in the yield of grain per ear. Sterilizationof more than one of the basal florets of spikelet 8 led to amore frequent setting of the grain in the distal florets onthat spikelet and to the centrally positioned grain becomingheavier. The physiological basis for the inhibitory influences of theolder and developing grain on the unfertilized florets and youngergrain is discussed.     

Characterization of the Endoproteases Appearing during Wheat Grain Development

The pattern of endoproteolytic activities occurring during wheat (Triticum aestivum, cultivar Chinese Spring) grain development was investigated. Total endoprotease activity, assayed in solution with azocasein as a substrate, increased during the early stages of grain development to reach a maximum at 15 d postanthesis that was maintained until the grain was mature. Endoprotease activity was also assayed in gradient polyacrylamide gels co-polymerized with gelatin. The increase in endoproteolytic activity was due to the appearance of up to 18 endoproteolytic bands that were arbitrarily classified into five groups (A, B, C, D, and E). The presence of serine, aspartic, metallo, and, to a lesser extent, thiol proteases in developing wheat grains was demonstrated by the use of class-specific protease inhibitors. The appearance of the different classes of endoproteases during seed development was subject to temporal control; serine proteases were more abundant at early stages and aspartic and metallo proteases were more abundant at later stages. At intermediate stages of development (15-20 d postanthesis), most of the endoproteases were localized in the aleurone, testa, and embryo. The content of acidic thiol proteases was low in the developing starchy endosperm.     

Limitations to the Accumulation of Starch in the Developing Wheat Grain

The postulate that photosynthetic capacity limits the rate ofaccumulation of starch and dry matter in the developing wheatgrain has been tested by defoliating plants growing in the field,and by culturing detached ears on solutions of sucrose. In mostcases complete defoliation did not reduce the amounts of starchor dry matter produced 4 to 10 days later, or affect the amountsof sucrose in the grain. Increasing the potential supply ofsucrose above normal levels by culturing did not lead to increasesin either the deposition of starch or the quantity of sucrosein the grain. Removing leaves caused small depressions in thegain in fresh weight of the grain, and where defoliation didreduce the accumulation of starch there was no comparable effecton the amount of sucrose in the grain. Accordingly, it is concludedthat the postulate stated above is invalid. The case in support of the concept that it is the mechanismregulating the passage of sucrose into the grain which imposesa limitation on the accumulation of starch is presented.     

The Development of Wheat Grain in Relation to Endogenous Growth Substances

Changes in the endogenous gibberellins and abscisic acid ofthe developing grains of Triticum aestivum L. have been studiedin relation to growth of the grain. The maximum grain volumeis inversely related to temperature and is reached while thedry weight is still small. This stage is associated with a sharpincrease in gibberellins. Starch formation is the principalfeature of the next stage of development and this ceases shortlyafter the beginning of a period of rapid water loss. This waterloss is preceded by an increase in the abscisic acid content.Changes in the endosperm are associated with changes in thebiochemical and physical attributes of the pericarp; these alsohave been correlated with changes in growth substances. Theresults are related to the ripening process and the final dryweight of the grain.     

Effects of Radiation and Temperature on Tiller Survival, Grain Number and Grain Yield in Winter Wheat

Effects of the environment on shoot survival were studied inwinter wheat cv. Avalon grown in microplots at a density of247 plants m^–2. The incident radiation and mean temperaturewere altered during one of three periods of between 14 and 29d duration, the first (P1) starting at the end of tiller productionand the last (P3) finishing near the end of the tiller deathphase, about three weeks before anthesis. Plants were giventemperature and radiation treatments in growth rooms in twoexperiments and extra light outdoors in a third experiment:they were at other times grown outdoors. Increasing radiation by between 60 and 100 per cent during P1had negligible effects on shoot number; during P2 it alwaysdelayed tiller death but increased final ear number in onlyone experiment; during P3 it consistently increased ear numberby up to 100 m^–2. Increased radiation always increasedcrop dry weight immediately after treatment but only sometimesdid this increase persist to maturity. Grain dry weight wasincreased by treatment during P3 of one experiment. Increasingthe temperature by 4 C decreased shoot number, usually onlytemporarily, by hastening death of some tillers. Warmer temperaturesdecreased crop growth after, but not during, treatment and decreasedgrain dry weight. Radiation and temperature rarely interacted. Variation in grain yield within and between experiments relatedwell to variation in number of grains m^–2, which in turnrelated to variation in ear dry weight at anthesis. Triticum aestivum L., wheat, radiation, temperature, tillers, grain yield, grain number     

Leaf Regulation of the Nitrogen Concentration in the Grain of Wheat Plants

The regulation of the final grain N concentration in wheat (Triticumaestivum) plants was studied through the alteration of the source/sinkratio. Plants were grown in a greenhouse in pots with soil,and fertilized with a supraoptimal N supply. The plants were divided into six groups. In one treatment, plantsremained untouched as a control (Treatment 1). In another group,all the ears except that of the main tiller were removed atflowering (Treatment 2). All other plants were de-tillered afterthe emergence of the third leaf, leaving only one tiller perplant. At flowering, one plant set was left untouched (Treatment3). In a second group, all the leaves were excised (Treatment4). In another group half the spikelets of the ear were excised(Treatment 5) and in the last group three-quarters of the spikeletswere excised (Treatment 6). Ear excision produced an increase in individual grain weightand the grain N concentration above the normal N concentrationobserved in this cultivar. The final N concentration was correlatedwith the concentration of free amino acids in the flag leaf34 d after flowering. It is concluded that in intact plants grain protein synthesisis substrate-limited by the amino acid export pool in the leaves,and grain excision increases the availability of amino acidsto be transported to the remaining grains. Key words: Amino acids, grain N concentration, nitrogen, remobilization, wheat     

Grain Protein Content in Wheat: Genetics of the Character and Some Predictions for Its Improvement in Common Wheat

The results of studies on genetic control of the grain protein content in common wheat and the attempts of its improvement using traditional breeding approaches and methods of experimental mutagenesis and introgressive hybridization are presented. The evolution of the views on the genetic structure of the character is considered. Possible explanations are given to the fact that the attempts to significantly improve the character in question in common wheat cultivars have failed in spite of long-term genetic and selection studies. Possible lines of further investigation of genetic control of grain protein content and its increase in common wheat are discussed.__________Translated from Genetika, Vol. 41, No. 8, 2005, pp. 1013–1026.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Zlatska.     

A Genetic Framework for Grain Size and Shape Variation in Wheat

Grain morphology in wheat (Triticum aestivum) has been selected and manipulated even in very early agrarian societies and remains a major breeding target. We undertook a large-scale quantitative analysis to determine the genetic basis of the phenotypic diversity in wheat grain morphology. A high-throughput method was used to capture grain size and shape variation in multiple mapping populations, elite varieties, and a broad collection of ancestral wheat species. This analysis reveals that grain size and shape are largely independent traits in both primitive wheat and in modern varieties. This phenotypic structure was retained across the mapping populations studied, suggesting that these traits are under the control of a limited number of discrete genetic components. We identified the underlying genes as quantitative trait loci that are distinct for grain size and shape and are largely shared between the different mapping populations. Moreover, our results show a significant reduction of phenotypic variation in grain shape in the modern germplasm pool compared with the ancestral wheat species, probably as a result of a relatively recent bottleneck. Therefore, this study provides the genetic underpinnings of an emerging phenotypic model where wheat domestication has transformed a long thin primitive grain to a wider and shorter modern grain.     

The Metabolism and Transport of Abscisic Acid During Grain Fill in Wheat

The metabolism and transport of (±)-l2-¹⁴Clabscisic acidand its metabolites was investigated during the period of graindevelopment in wheat. Forty-five hours after feeding the hormoneinto the flag leaf blade, or after injection into the grains,nine metabolites could be extracted with acetone. Four of thesecompounds have been identified. They are phaseic acid, dihydrophaseicacid, abscisyl-ß-D-glucopyranoside and the polar metabolite.As well as the acetone-soluble metabolites a number of othershave been found which are insoluble in acetone. These appearto be conjugated to lipids, ‘gluten-like’ proteins,and carbohydrates. ABA and its metabolites were transported to all parts of theplant above the flag leaf node when the radioactive hormonewas introduced into the blade. However, when it was injectedinto the grain the radioactivity remained there until the pointwhen dry matter accumulation ceased, after which it was foundonly in the peduncle. The results suggest that the increasing level of ABA duringthe period of dry matter accumulation is due to biosynthesiswithin the grain and that the decrease after dry matter accumulationceases is due to both metabolism and redistribution within theplant.     

The Effect of High Temperature at Different Stages of Ripening on Grain Set, Grain Weight and Grain Dimensions in the Semi-dwarf Wheat 'Banks'

Grain number in the wheat cultivar Banks was reduced by up to11 % with a rise in temperature from 21/16 °C to 30/25 °Cover a 10-d period immediately following first anthesis in general,the upper ‘d’ and ‘c’ florets were moreaffected by high temperature than the basal ‘a’and ‘b’ florets within a spikelet and florets fromthe upper spikelets were more sensitive than those lower onthe ear Grain weight and grain length at maturity were most affectedby a 10 d period of high temperature commencing 7–10 dafter anthesis However, if dry-matter accumulation between thestart of a treatment and grain maturity was used as a base forcomparison, the response was more uniform throughout development,with a peak in sensitivity 25 d after anthesis Although grainposition within an ear did not have a large effect on the responseto temperature, grains from the basal spikelets were more sensitivethan those from the apex, and the upper floret grains of a spikeletwere more sensitive to high temperature than those at the base There is a need to obtain, for a range of cultivars, more comprehensivedata on the effect of the timing and degree of temperature stressfollowing anthesis, for use in interpreting the response torising temperatures late in the development of the crop in thefield Triticum aestivum L, wheat, temperature, grain development