The Arabidopsis thaliana 2-D gel mitochondrial proteome: Refining the value of reference maps for assessing protein abundance, contaminants and post-translational modifications

Mitochondria undertake the process of oxidative phosphorylation yielding ATP for plant cell maintenance and growth. The principles of isolation and fractionation of plant mitochondrial proteins have been improved over decades, and surveys of the mitochondrial proteome in a number of plants species have been performed. Over time, many quantitative analyses of changes in the plant mitochondrial proteome have been performed by 2-D gel analyses revealing the induction, degradation and modification of mitochondrial proteins in responses to mutation, stress and development. Here, we present a saturating MS analysis of 2-D gel separable protein spots from a typical purification of Arabidopsis mitochondria identifying 264 proteins, alongside an LC-MS/MS survey by non-gel methods identifying 220 proteins. This allowed us to characterise the major mitochondrial proteins that are not observed on 2-D gels, the common contaminants and the abundance of the protein machinery of key mitochondrial biochemical pathways, and consider the impact of N-terminal pre-sequence cleavage and phosphorylation as explanations of multiple protein spots and the co-ordinates of proteins on 2-D gels.     

Mining the soluble chloroplast proteome by affinity chromatography

Chloroplasts are fundamental organelles enabling plant photoautotrophy. Besides their outstanding physiological role in fixation of atmospheric CO(2), they harbor many important metabolic processes such as biosynthesis of amino acids, vitamins or hormones. Technical advances in MS allowed the recent identification of most chloroplast proteins. However, for a deeper understanding of chloroplast function it is important to obtain a complete list of constituents, which is so far limited by the detection of low-abundant proteins. Therefore, we developed a two-step strategy for the enrichment of low-abundant soluble chloroplast proteins from Pisum sativum and their subsequent identification by MS. First, chloroplast protein extracts were depleted from the most abundant protein ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase by SEC or heating. Further purification was carried out by affinity chromatography, using ligands specific for ATP- or metal-binding proteins. By these means, we were able to identify a total of 448 proteins including 43 putative novel chloroplast proteins. Additionally, the chloroplast localization of 13 selected proteins was confirmed using yellow fluorescent protein fusion analyses. The selected proteins included a phosphoglycerate mutase, a cysteine protease, a putative protein kinase and an EF-hand containing substrate carrier protein, which are expected to exhibit important metabolic or regulatory functions.     

The proteome of the chloroplast lumen of higher plants

Recent research in proteomics of the higher plant chloroplast has achieved considerable progress and added to our knowledge of lumenal chloroplast proteins. This work shows that chloroplast lumen has its own specific proteome and may comprise as many as 80 proteins. Although the new map of the lumenal proteome provides a great deal of information, it also raises numerous questions because the physiological functions of most of the novel lumenal proteins are unknown. In this Minireview, we summarize the latest discoveries regarding lumenal proteins and present the currently known facts about the lumenal chloroplast proteome of higher plants.     

N-terminal modifications increase the neutral-pH stability of pepsin

A structure-function study was undertaken to determine the effects of N-terminal mutations in pepsin designed to introduce the Lys-X-Tyr motif and increase N-terminal flexibility. At pH 7.0, E7K/T12A/E13Q pepsin was inactivated more slowly compared to WT, whereas the mutants E7K and T12A/E13Q were not stabilized. Far-UV circular dichroism revealed that changes in secondary structure accompanied the inactivation process, and that the structural changes occurred at approximately the same rate as inactivation. All of the inactivated pepsin forms showed retention of substantial secondary structure, more than previously determined for pepsin denatured at pH 7.2 and 8.0, suggesting the presence of a structural intermediate at pH 7.0. The coupled mutations at positions 12 and 13 impacted the pH dependence of activity at pH 0.9, lowered affinity for a synthetic substrate, and lowered the turnover number. The introduction of Lys at position 7 apparently destabilized the interaction between prosegment-enzyme body as evidenced by activation at higher pH (>or= 4.0) compared to WT, but showed no change for pH dependence of activity, nor a statistically significant change in affinity for the synthetic substrate.     

Developmental Signalling: Sorting out the signals

New insights into the developmental roles played by the TGF-β family of signalling molecules come from the identification in Drosophila of two transmembrane receptors encoded by the thick veins and saxophone genes.     

Thermal proteome profiling: Insights into protein modifications,associations, and functions

Tracking proteins’ biophysical characteristics on a proteome-wide scale can provide valuable information on their functions and interactions. Thermal proteome profiling (TPP) is a multiplexed quantitative proteomics approach that measures changes in protein thermal stability—a key biophysical property—across different cellular states. Developed in 2014, as a target-deconvolution assay for drugs and other small molecules, TPP has since evolved to a system-level biochemical omics technique providing insights into context-dependent changes in protein states. In this review, we summarise key advances in the experimental and data analysis pipeline that have aided this transformation and discuss the recent developments and applications of TPP.     

The abundance of short proteins in the mammalian proteome

Short proteins play key roles in cell signalling and other processes, but their abundance in the mammalian proteome is unknown. Current catalogues of mammalian proteins exhibit an artefactual discontinuity at a length of 100 aa, so that protein abundance peaks just above this length and falls off sharply below it. To clarify the abundance of short proteins, we identify proteins in the FANTOM collection of mouse cDNAs by analysing synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions with the computer program CRITICA. This analysis confirms that there is no real discontinuity at length 100. Roughly 10% of mouse proteins are shorter than 100 aa, although the majority of these are variants of proteins longer than 100 aa. We identify many novel short proteins, including a “dark matter” subset containing ones that lack detectable homology to other known proteins. Translation assays confirm that some of these novel proteins can be translated and localised to the secretory pathway.     

Sorting and targeting of melanosomal membrane proteins: signals, pathways, and mechanisms

Newly synthesized melanosomal proteins, like many other cellular proteins, traverse through a series of intracellular compartments en route to melanosomes. Entry and exit of proteins through these compartments is orchestrated by cellular sorting machinery that recognize specific sorting signals. Melanosomal membrane proteins begin their intracellular journey upon co-translational importation into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The biosynthetic output of tyrosinase, the key melanogenic enzyme, appears to be regulated by quality-control events at the ER, the 'port of entry' to the secretory pathway. Following maturation in the ER and through the Golgi, the sorting of these proteins in the trans-Golgi network for intracellular retention and transport along endosome/lysosome pathway requires cytoplasmically exposed signals. A di-leucine motif, present in the cytoplasmic tails of most melanosomal proteins, and its interaction with adaptor protein (AP) complexes, specifically AP-3, are critical for these events. Defects in sorting signals and the cytosolic components that interact with these signals result in a number of murine coat color phenotypes and cause human pigmentary disorders. Thus, missense or frame-shift mutations that produce truncated tyrosinase lacking the melanosomal sorting signal(s) appear to be responsible for murine platinum coat color phenotypes and a proportion of human oculocutaneous albinism-1; mutations in AP-3 appear to be responsible for the mocha phenotype in mice and Hermansky-Pudlak-like syndrome in man. Additional signals and sorting steps downstream of AP-3 appear to be required for endosomal sorting and targeting proteins to melanosomes. Signals and mechanisms that sequester melanosomal proteins from endosomes/lysosomes are not understood. Potential candidates that mediate such processes include proteins encoded by lyst and pallid genes. The common occurrence of abnormalities in melanosomes in many storage-pool disorders suggests that melanocytes utilize signals, pathways, and mechanisms shared by other proteins and cell types to assemble a number of specialized proteins and produce unique cell-type-specific organelles.     

Tools for analyzing and predicting N-terminal protein modifications

The vast majority of the proteins encoded in any genome naturally undergo a large number of different N-terminal modifications, hindering their characterization by routine proteomic approaches. These modifications are often irreversible, usually cotranslational and are crucial, as their occurrence may reflect or affect the status, fate and function of the protein. For example, large signal peptide cleavages and N-blocking mechanisms reflect targeting to various cell compartments, whereas N-ligation events tend to be related to protein half-life. N-terminal positional proteomic strategies hold promise as a new generation of approaches to the fine analysis of such modifications. However, further biological investigation is required to resolve problems associated with particular low-abundance or challenging N-terminal modifications. Recent progress in genomics and bioinformatics has provided us with a means of assessing the impact of these modifications in proteomes. This review focuses on methods for characterizing the occurrence and diversity of N-terminal modifications and for assessing their contribution to function in complete proteomes. Progress is being made towards the annotation of databases containing information for complete proteomes, and should facilitate research into all areas of proteomics.     

Sorting of signals from thermosensitive areas.

Of the several models proposed for the neural regulation of temperature in cold-exposed animals, two have been previously restated in dynamic form using CSMP. Subsequently, computer simulations have led to the design and execution of experiments for selection of the more appropriate model for cold-exposed rats. These experiments, as described in the present paper, have been interpreted as being consistent with the model which sorts signals from thermosensitive areas and channels the selected signals over separate neural pathways to independently control each mode of heat production. Since this model requires multiplication of neural signals, possible neuronal mechanisms which may underline such multiplication are discussed. In addition, parameter variation to account for febril responses and rate sensitivity have been evaluated.     

The human mitochondrial proteome: oxidative stress, protein modifications and oxidative phosphorylation

Mitochondria are one of the most complex of subcellular organelles and play key roles in many cellular functions including energy production, fatty acid metabolism, pyrimidine biosynthesis, calcium homeostasis, and cell signaling. In recent years, we and other groups have attempted to identify the complete set of proteins that are localized to human mitochondria as a way to better understand its cellular functions and how it communicates with other cell compartment in complex signaling pathways such as oxidative stress and apoptosis. Indeed, there is an increasing interest in understanding the molecular details of oxidative stress and the mitochondrial role in this process, as well as assessing how mitochondrial proteins become damaged or posttranslationally modified as a consequence of a major change in a cell's redox status. In this review, we report on the current status of the human mitochondrial proteome with an emphasis towards understanding how mitochondrial proteins, especially the proteins that make up the respiratory chain or oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) enzymes, are modified in various models of age-related diseases such as cancer and Parkinson's disease (PD).     

Sorting pathway and molecular targeting signals for the Arabidopsis peroxin 3

Peroxin 3 (Pex3p) has been identified and characterized as a peroxisomal membrane protein in yeasts and mammals. We identified two putative homologs in Arabidopsis (AtPex3p, forms 1 and 2), both with an identical cluster of positively charged amino acid residues (RKHRRK) immediately preceding one of the two predicted transmembrane domains (TMD1). In transiently transformed Arabidopsis and tobacco BY-2 suspension-cultured cells, epitope-tagged AtPex3p (form 2) sorted post-translationally from the cytosol directly to peroxisomes, the first sorting pathway described for any peroxin in plants. TMD1 and RKHRRK were necessary for targeting form 2 to peroxisomes and sufficient for directing chloramphenicol acetyltransferase to peroxisomes in both cell types. The N and C termini of AtPex3p (form 2) extend into the peroxisomal matrix, different from mammal and yeast Pex3 proteins. Thus, two authentic peroxisomal membrane-bound Pex3p homologs possessing a membrane peroxisomal targeting signal, the first one defined for a plant peroxin and for any Pex3p homolog, exist in plant cells.     

Sorting of calcium signals at the junctions of endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria

Calcium signal transmission between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria is supported by a local [Ca(2+)] control that operates between IP(3)receptor Ca(2+)release channels (IP(3)R) and mitochondrial Ca(2+)uptake sites, and displays functional similarities to synaptic transmission. Activation of IP(3)R by IP(3)is known to evoke quantal Ca(2+)mobilization that is associated with incremental elevations of mitochondrial matrix [Ca(2+)] ([Ca(2+)](m)). Here we report that activation of IP(3)R by adenophostin-A (AP) yields non-quantal Ca(2+)mobilization in mast cells. We also show that the AP-induced continuous Ca(2+)release causes relatively small [Ca(2+)](m)responses, in particular, the sustained phase of Ca(2+)release is not sensed by the mitochondria. Inhibition of ER Ca(2+)pumps by thapsigargin slightly increases IP(3)-induced [Ca(2+)](m)responses, but augments AP-induced [Ca(2+)](m)responses in a large extent. In adherent permeabilized cells exposed to elevated [Ca(2+)], ER Ca(2+)uptake fails to affect global cytosolic [Ca(2+)], but attenuates [Ca(2+)](m)responses. Moreover, almost every mitochondrion exhibits a region very close to ER Ca(2+)pumps visualized by BODIPY-FL-thapsigargin or SERCA antibody. Thus, at the ER-mitochondrial junctions, localized ER Ca(2+)uptake provides a mechanism to attenuate the mitochondrial response during continuous Ca(2+)release through the IP(3)R or during gradual Ca(2+)influx to the junction between ER and mitochondria.     

Biofilm-induced modifications in the proteome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa planktonic cells

While recent studies focused on Quorum Sensing (QS) role in the cell-to-cell communication in free or biofilm cultures, no work has been devoted up to now to investigate the communication between sessile and planktonic bacteria. In this aim, we elaborated an original two-chambered bioreactor and used a proteomic approach to study the alterations induced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm cells on protein expression in planktonic counterparts (named SIPs for Surface-Influenced Planktonics). Proteomic analyses revealed the existence of 31 proteins whose amount varied in SIPs, among which five corresponded to hypothetic proteins and two (the Fur and BCP proteins) are involved in bacterial response to oxidative stress. An increase in the concentration of C₄-HSL (rhlR–rhlI-dependent QS) and 3-oxo-C₁₂-HSL (lasR–lasI-dependent QS) autoinducer molecules was shown in the planktonic compartment. Interestingly, among proteins that were accumulated by SIPs was 3-oxoacyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reductase, a protein involved in the production of the autoinducer 3-oxo-C₁₂-HSL. These results demonstrate that planktonic organisms are able to detect the presence of a biofilm in their close environment and to modify their gene expression in consequence.     

Extent of N-terminal modifications in cytosolic proteins from eukaryotes

Most proteins in all organisms undergo crucial N-terminal modifications involving N-terminal methionine excision, N-alpha-acetylation or N-myristoylation (N-Myr), or S-palmitoylation. We investigated the occurrence of these poorly annotated but essential modifications in proteomes, focusing on eukaryotes. Experimental data for the N-terminal sequences of animal, fungi, and archaeal proteins, were used to build dedicated predictive modules in a new software. In vitro N-Myr experiments were performed with both plant and animal N-myristoyltransferases, for accurate prediction of the modification. N-terminal modifications from the fully sequenced genome of Arabidopsis thaliana were determined by MS. We identified 105 new modified protein N-termini, which were used to check the accuracy of predictive data. An accuracy of more than 95% was achieved, demonstrating (i) overall conservation of the specificity of the modification machinery in higher eukaryotes and (ii) robustness of the prediction tool. Predictions were made for various proteomes. Proteins that had undergone both N-terminal methionine (Met) cleavage and N-acetylation were found to be strongly overrepresented among the most abundant proteins, in contrast to those retaining their genuine unblocked Met. Here we propose that the nature of the second residue of an ORF is a key marker of the abundance of the mature protein in eukaryotes.