Effects of increased soil water availability on grassland ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes

There is considerable interest in how ecosystems will respond to changes in precipitation. Alterations in rain and snowfall are expected to influence the spatio-temporal patterns of plant and soil processes that are controlled by soil moisture, and potentially, the amount of carbon (C) exchanged between the atmosphere and ecosystems. Because grasslands cover over one third of the terrestrial landscape, understanding controls on grassland C processes will be important to forecast how changes in precipitation regimes will influence the global C cycle. In this study we examined how irrigation affects carbon dioxide (CO₂) fluxes in five widely variable grasslands of Yellowstone National Park during a year of approximately average growing season precipitation. We irrigated plots every 2 weeks with 25% of the monthly 30-year average of precipitation resulting in plots receiving approximately 150% of the usual growing season water in the form of rain and supplemented irrigation. Ecosystem CO₂ fluxes were measured with a closed chamber-system once a month from May-September on irrigated and unirrigated plots in each grassland. Soil moisture was closely associated with CO₂ fluxes and shoot biomass, and was between 1.6% and 11.5% higher at the irrigated plots (values from wettest to driest grassland) during times of measurements. When examining the effect of irrigation throughout the growing season (May–September) across sites, we found that water additions increased ecosystem CO₂ fluxes at the two driest and the wettest sites, suggesting that these sites were water-limited during the climatically average precipitation conditions of the 2005 growing season. In contrast, no consistent responses to irrigation were detected at the two sites with intermediate soil moisture. Thus, the ecosystem CO₂ fluxes at those sites were not water-limited, when considering their responses to supplemental water throughout the whole season. In contrast, when we explored how the effect of irrigation varied temporally, we found that irrigation increased ecosystem CO₂ fluxes at all the sites late in the growing season (September). The spatial differences in the response of ecosystem CO₂ fluxes to irrigation likely can be explained by site specific differences in soil and vegetation properties. The temporal effects likely were due to delayed plant senescence that promoted plant and soil activity later into the year. Our results suggest that in Yellowstone National Park, above-normal amounts of soil moisture will only stimulate CO₂ fluxes across a portion of the ecosystem. Thus, depending on the topographic location, grassland CO₂ fluxes can be water-limited or not. Such information is important to accurately predict how changes in precipitation/soil moisture will affect CO₂ dynamics and how they may feed back to the global C cycle.     

Denitrification in a nitrogen-limited stream ecosystem

Denitrification was measured in hyporheic, parafluvial, and bank sediments of Sycamore Creek, Arizona, a nitrogen-limited Sonoran Desert stream. We used three variations of the acetylene block technique to estimate denitrification rates, and compared these estimates to rates of nitrate production through nitrification. Subsurface sediments of Sycamore Creek are typically well-oxygenated, relatively low in nitrate, and low in organic carbon, and therefore are seemingly unlikely sites of denitrification. However, we found that denitrification potential (C & N amended, anaerobic incubations) was substantial, and even by our conservative estimates (unamended, oxic incubations and field chamber nitrous oxide accumulation), denitrification consumed 5–40% of nitrate produced by nitrification. We expected that denitrification would increase along hyporheic and parafluvial flowpaths as dissolved oxygen declined and nitrate increased. To the contrary, we found that denitrification was generally highest at the upstream ends of subsurface flowpaths where surface water had just entered the subsurface zone. This suggests that denitrifiers may be dependent on the import of surface-derived organic matter, resulting in highest denitrification rate at locations of surface-subsurface hydrologic exchange. Laboratory experiments showed that denitrification in Sycamore Creek sediments was primarily nitrogen limited and secondarily carbon limited, and was temperature dependent. Overall, the quantity of nitrate removed from the Sycamore Creek ecosystem via denitrification is significant given the nitrogen-limited status of this stream.     

Effects of litter removal and addition on ecosystem carbon fluxes in a typical steppe

为揭示凋落物去除和添加处理对草原生态系统碳通量的影响, 2013和2014年连续两年在成熟群落围封样地进行凋落物去除实验、在退化群落放牧样地进行凋落物添加实验, 并运用静态箱法探讨碳通量变化规律并分析其主要影响因子。结果表明: 两种群落的净生态系统CO₂交换(NEE)有明显的季节性变化。对成熟群落而言, 去除50%凋落物显著增加了NEE, 去除100%凋落物显著降低了NEE, 而对生态系统总初级生产力(GEP)和生态系统呼吸(ER)均无显著影响; 对退化群落而言, 凋落物添加显著增加了GEP和NEE, 而对ER无显著影响。两种群落的GEP与10 cm土壤温度显著正相关, 但NEE和GEP的变化规律与土壤温度相反, 与10 cm土壤湿度相同。由此可见, 凋落物去除和添加处理对生态系统碳通量的影响主要是改变土壤湿度和地上生物量,而不是改变土壤温度。该研究为合理利用凋落物改善草地生态系统管理和促进草地恢复提供了理论依据。     

凋落物去除和添加处理对典型草原生态系统碳通量的影响

为揭示凋落物去除和添加处理对草原生态系统碳通量的影响, 2013和2014年连续两年在成熟群落围封样地进行凋落物去除实验、在退化群落放牧样地进行凋落物添加实验, 并运用静态箱法探讨碳通量变化规律并分析其主要影响因子。结果表明: 两种群落的净生态系统CO₂交换(NEE)有明显的季节性变化。对成熟群落而言, 去除50%凋落物显著增加了NEE, 去除100%凋落物显著降低了NEE, 而对生态系统总初级生产力(GEP)和生态系统呼吸(ER)均无显著影响; 对退化群落而言, 凋落物添加显著增加了GEP和NEE, 而对ER无显著影响。两种群落的GEP与10 cm土壤温度显著正相关, 但NEE和GEP的变化规律与土壤温度相反, 与10 cm土壤湿度相同。由此可见, 凋落物去除和添加处理对生态系统碳通量的影响主要是改变土壤湿度和地上生物量,而不是改变土壤温度。该研究为合理利用凋落物改善草地生态系统管理和促进草地恢复提供了理论依据。     

仪器的加热效应校正对生态系统碳水通量估算的影响

涡度相关技术的广泛应用为获取生态系统碳、水通量提供了可能,但在开路式涡度相关系统中,仪器的加热效应增大了观测数据的不确定性。为了衡量仪器的加热效应,以ChinaFLUX3个典型生态系统(长白山温带针阔混交林(CBS)、海北灌丛草甸(HBGC)、鼎湖山亚热带常绿阔叶林(DHS))为研究对象,就仪器的加热效应校正对碳、水通量估算的影响进行分析。结果表明:加热校正没有改变生态系统的能量闭合特征,也没有对水汽通量的估算产生影响,但显著减小了CBS和HBGC非生长季的净生态系统生产力(NEP),进而减少了NEP的年总量,对DHS没有显著影响。NEP减小幅度受到温度的强烈影响,CBS为7.7%～10.4%,远小于HBGC的76.6%～85.2%,HBGC的NEP大幅降低主要是由夜间NEP的改变导致生态系统呼吸(RE)的增大而引起。因而,在温带生态系统中,充分考虑加热校正对于准确估算生态系统的碳收支具有重要作用。     

Temperature and precipitation drive temporal variability in aquatic carbon and GHG concentrations and fluxes in a peatland catchment

The aquatic pathway is increasingly being recognized as an important component of catchment carbon and greenhouse gas (GHG) budgets, particularly in peatland systems due to their large carbon store and strong hydrological connectivity. In this study, we present a complete 5‐year data set of all aquatic carbon and GHG species from an ombrotrophic Scottish peatland. Measured species include particulate and dissolved forms of organic carbon (POC, DOC), dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O. We show that short‐term variability in concentrations exists across all species and this is strongly linked to discharge. Seasonal cyclicity was only evident in DOC, CO₂ and CH₄ concentration; however, temperature correlated with monthly means in all species except DIC. Although the temperature correlation with monthly DOC and POC concentrations appeared to be related to biological productivity in the terrestrial system, we suggest the temperature correlation with CO₂ and CH₄ was primarily due to in‐stream temperature‐dependent solubility. Interannual variability in total aquatic carbon concentration was strongly correlated with catchment gross primary productivity (GPP) indicating a strong potential terrestrial aquatic linkage. DOC represented the largest aquatic carbon flux term (19.3 ± 4.59 g C m^?2 yr^?1), followed by CO₂ evasion (10.0 g C m^?2 yr^?1). Despite an estimated contribution to the total aquatic carbon flux of between 8 and 48%, evasion estimates had the greatest uncertainty. Interannual variability in total aquatic carbon export was low in comparison with variability in terrestrial biosphere–atmosphere exchange, and could be explained primarily by temperature and precipitation. Our results therefore suggest that climatic change is likely to have a significant impact on annual carbon losses through the aquatic pathway, and as such, aquatic exports are fundamental to the understanding of whole catchment responses to climate change.     

Modelled effects of precipitation on ecosystem carbon and water dynamics in different climatic zones

The ongoing changes in the global climate expose the world's ecosystems not only to increasing CO₂ concentrations and temperatures but also to altered precipitation (P) regimes. Using four well-established process-based ecosystem models (LPJ, DayCent, ORCHIDEE, TECO), we explored effects of potential P changes on water limitation and net primary production (NPP) in seven terrestrial ecosystems with distinctive vegetation types in different hydroclimatic zones. We found that NPP responses to P changes differed not only among sites but also within a year at a given site. The magnitudes of NPP change were basically determined by the degree of ecosystem water limitation, which was quantified here using the ratio between atmospheric transpirational demand and soil water supply. Humid sites and/or periods were least responsive to any change in P as compared with moderately humid or dry sites/periods. We also found that NPP responded more strongly to doubling or halving of P amount and a seasonal shift in P occurrence than that to altered P frequency and intensity at constant annual amounts. The findings were highly robust across the four models especially in terms of the direction of changes and largely consistent with earlier P manipulation experiments and modelling results. Overall, this study underscores the widespread importance of P as a driver of change in ecosystems, although the ultimate response of a particular site will depend on the detailed nature and seasonal timing of P change.     

降水量与氮添加对荒漠草原生态系统碳交换的影响

为深入了解降水格局改变和氮沉降增加对荒漠草原生态系统碳交换的影响机制,于2017年在宁夏荒漠草原设立了降水量变化（减少50%、减少30%、自然降水量、增加30%以及增加50%）和氮添加（0和5 g m^-2 a^-1）的野外试验,研究了2019年生长季（5-10月份）净生态系统碳交换（Net ecosystem carbon exchange,NEE）、生态系统呼吸（Ecosystem respiration,ER）和总生态系统生产力（Gross ecosystem productivity,GEP）的时间动态,分析了三者与植被组成以及土壤属性的关系。NEE、ER和GEP日动态和月动态均呈先增加后降低,NEE在整个生长季表现为净生态系统碳吸收。0和5 g m^-2 a^-1氮添加下,减少降水量显著降低了NEE、ER和GEP （P<0.05）,增加30%降水量显著提高了三者（P<0.05）。相同降水量条件下,氮添加不同程度地提高了NEE、ER和GEP,且其效应在增加50%降水量时较为明显。净生态系统碳吸收（-NEE）、ER和GEP与群落生物量、牛枝子（Lespedeza potaninii）以及草木樨状黄芪（Astragalus melilotoides）生物量正相关。三者亦随Patrick丰富度指数和Shannon-Wiener多样性指数的增加而增加。本文结果意味着,减少降水量降低了土壤水分和养分有效性、抑制了植物生长,从而降低了生态系统碳交换。适量增加降水量则可能通过提高土壤含水量、刺激土壤酶活性、调节土壤C ： N ： P平衡特征等途径,促进了植物生长和物种多样性,从而提高了生态系统碳汇功能;氮添加亦促进了生态系统碳交换,但其与降水的交互作用尚不明显,需通过长期观测进行深入探讨。     

施氮和降水格局改变对土壤CH4和CO2通量的影响

氮沉降增加和降水格局改变是全球变化的两项重要内容,但是同时考虑上述两因素对温室气体CH4和CO2通量影响的原位双因子模拟研究还相当有限.本研究以长白山温带阔叶红松林土壤为研究对象,采用静态箱法研究了外施氮源(50 kg N·hm-2·a-1)和增减30％降水对土壤CH4和CO2通量的影响.结果表明:施氮能抑制土壤CH4吸收,有时甚至能将土壤对CH4的吸收转为释放,但这种抑制效应只能维持5d左右,且能在一定程度上改变CH4通量和环境因子(温度、土壤pH、粘粒含量)的相关关系.降水改变未能显著影响土壤CH4通量.对CO2通量而言,施氮能降低土壤CO2排放,长白山阔叶红松林连续施氮第4年的平均抑制效应为27.4％.长期连续施氮的平均抑制效应随施氮时间延长而逐渐增大,一定年限后达到最大值.单次施氮的抑制效应随时间延长逐渐减弱,并在1个月的施氮周期末期基本消失.施氮的抑制效应和土壤充水孔隙度(WFPS)呈显著负相关关系,且升温能增强施氮对CO2释放的抑制效应并延长抑制时间.施氮、降水有可能改变土壤呼吸的温度敏感性.本研究表明,长白山森林土壤氮素尚未达到一定阈值,未来氮沉降增加将抑制CO2的释放和CH4的吸收,因此总体来看施氮抑制土壤碳排放.     

Temperature‐mediated responses of carbon fluxes to precipitation variabilities in an alpine meadow ecosystem on the Tibetan Plateau

Effects of climate warming and changing precipitation on ecosystem carbon fluxes have been intensively studied. However, how they co‐regulate carbon fluxes is still elusive for some understudied ecosystems. To fill the gap, we examined net ecosystem productivity (NEP), gross ecosystem productivity (GEP,) and ecosystem respiration (ER) responses to multilevel of temperature increments (control, warming 1, warming 2, warming 3, warming 4) in three contrasting hydrological growing seasons in a typical semiarid alpine meadow. We found that carbon fluxes responded to precipitation variations more strongly in low‐level warming treatments than in high‐level ones. The distinct responses were attributable to different soil water conditions and community composition under low‐level and high‐level warming during the three growing seasons. In addition, carbon fluxes were much more sensitive to decreased than to increased precipitation in low‐level warming treatments, but not in high‐level ones. At a regional scale, this negative asymmetry was further corroborated. This study reveals that future precipitation changes, particularly decreased precipitation would induce significant change in carbon fluxes, and the effect magnitude is regulated by climate warming size.     

围封和放牧对沙质草地碳水通量的影响

碳、水循环是沙质草地生态系统物质和能量循环的两个关键生态过程, 认识碳、水循环的变化对了解沙质草地生态系统结构与功能对区域气候变化和人类活动的响应具有重要作用。2013年利用箱式法对科尔沁围封和放牧的沙质草地进行了一个生长季的观测研究, 结果表明: (1)在观测周期内, 沙质草地生态系统生产力(GEP)、生态系统呼吸(ER)、蒸散量(ET)在围封和放牧样地之间存在显著差异(p < 0.05)。围封17年样地的GEP、ER、ET均最大, 其次为围封22样地的, 放牧样地的最小, 且最大值分别为最小值的2.23倍、1.65倍、1.94倍。(2)碳水(GEP和ET)之间存在显著的线性正相关关系(p < 0.01), ET可解释GEP 58%-60%的变异, 水分利用效率(WUE)从大到小依次为: 围封22年(2.85 μmol·nmol^-1) >围封17年(2.75 μmol·nmol^-1) >放牧(2.10 μmol·nmol^-1)。(3) GEP、ER和土壤含水率之间有显著的线性正相关关系(p < 0.01、p < 0.05), 指数模型能够较好地模拟ER对土壤温度变化的响应, ER的温度敏感系数(Q₁₀值)从大到小依次为: 围封17年(1.878) >围封22年(1.733) >放牧(1.477)。因此, 围封能够使退化沙质草地生态系统的碳水循环速率提高, 但围封时间不宜过久。     

Recovery of ecosystem carbon fluxes and storage from herbivory

The carbon (C) sink strength of arctic tundra is under pressure from increasing populations of arctic breeding geese. In this study we examined how CO₂ and CH₄ fluxes, plant biomass and soil C responded to the removal of vertebrate herbivores in a high arctic wet moss meadow that has been intensively used by barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) for ca. 20 years. We used 4 and 9 years old grazing exclosures to investigate the potential for recovery of ecosystem function during the growing season (July 2007). The results show greater above- and below-ground vascular plant biomass within the grazing exclosures with graminoid biomass being most responsive to the removal of herbivory whilst moss biomass remained unchanged. The changes in biomass switched the system from net emission to net uptake of CO₂ (0.47 and −0.77 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ in grazed and exclosure plots, respectively) during the growing season and doubled the C storage in live biomass. In contrast, the treatment had no impact on the CH₄ fluxes, the total litter C pool or the soil C concentration. The rapid recovery of the above ground biomass and CO₂ fluxes demonstrates the plasticity of this high arctic ecosystem in terms of response to changing herbivore pressure.     

Influence of management and precipitation on carbon fluxes in great plains grasslands

Suitable management and sufficient precipitation on grasslands can provide carbon sinks. The net carbon accumulation of a site from the atmosphere, modeled as the Net Ecosystem Productivity (NEP), is a useful means to gauge carbon balance. Previous research has developed methods to integrate flux tower data with satellite biophysical datasets to estimate NEP across large regions. A related method uses the Ecosystem Performance Anomaly (EPA) as a satellite-derived indicator of disturbance intensity (e.g., livestock stocking rate, fire, and insect damage). To better understand the interactions among management, climate, and carbon dynamics, we evaluated the relationship between EPA and NEP data at the 250 m scale for grasslands in the Central Great Plains, USA (ranging from semi-arid to mesic). We also used weekly estimates of NEP to evaluate the phenology of carbon dynamics, classified by EPA (i.e., by level of disturbance impact). Results show that the cumulative carbon balance over these grasslands from 2000 to 2008 was a weak net sink of 13.7 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹. Overall, NEP increased with precipitation (R² = 0.39, P < 0.05) from west to east. Disturbance influenced NEP phenology; however, climate and biophysical conditions were usually more important. The NEP response to disturbance varies by ecoregion, and more generally by grassland type, where the shortgrass prairie NEP is most sensitive to disturbance, the mixed-grass prairie displays a moderate response, and tallgrass prairie is the least impacted by disturbance (as measured by EPA). Sustainable management practices in the tallgrass and mixed-grass prairie may potentially induce a period of average net carbon sink until a new equilibrium soil organic carbon is achieved. In the shortgrass prairie, management should be considered sustainable if carbon stocks are simply maintained. The consideration of site carbon balance adds to the already difficult task of managing grasslands appropriately to site conditions. Results clarify the seasonal and interannual dynamics of NEP, specifically the influence of disturbance and moisture availability.     

Comparing and evaluating process-based ecosystem model predictions of carbon and water fluxes in major European forest biomes

Process‐based models can be classified into: (a) terrestrial biogeochemical models (TBMs), which simulate fluxes of carbon, water and nitrogen coupled within terrestrial ecosystems, and (b) dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs), which further couple these processes interactively with changes in slow ecosystem processes depending on resource competition, establishment, growth and mortality of different vegetation types. In this study, four models – RHESSys, GOTILWA+, LPJ‐GUESS and ORCHIDEE – representing both modelling approaches were compared and evaluated against benchmarks provided by eddy‐covariance measurements of carbon and water fluxes at 15 forest sites within the EUROFLUX project. Overall, model‐measurement agreement varied greatly among sites. Both modelling approaches have somewhat different strengths, but there was no model among those tested that universally performed well on the two variables evaluated. Small biases and errors suggest that ORCHIDEE and GOTILWA+ performed better in simulating carbon fluxes while LPJ‐GUESS and RHESSys did a better job in simulating water fluxes. In general, the models can be considered as useful tools for studies of climate change impacts on carbon and water cycling in forests. However, the various sources of variation among models simulations and between models simulations and observed data described in this study place some constraints on the results and to some extent reduce their reliability. For example, at most sites in the Mediterranean region all models generally performed poorly most likely because of problems in the representation of water stress effects on both carbon uptake by photosynthesis and carbon release by heterotrophic respiration (R_h). The use of flux data as a means of assessing key processes in models of this type is an important approach to improving model performance. Our results show that the models have value but that further model development is necessary with regard to the representation of the some of the key ecosystem processes.     

基于参数优化的人工灌丛生态系统碳水通量模拟

荒漠草原是陆地生态系统中最为脆弱且受人类干扰较为严重的生态类型之一,精准模拟其碳水通量及对人为干扰的响应,不仅能够揭示其复杂的生态学过程,而且还可为人为生态修复和保护提供决策依据。生态模型能够有效地模拟陆地生态系统的碳水循环过程,但模型众多的参数及其取值的合理性限制了其普遍应用,故探索参数优化是提升生态模型应用的有效途径。利用PEST参数优化方法和涡度相关观测数据对Biome-BGC模型的生理生态参数进行优化,在评估参数优化效果的基础上模拟了1986-2018年宁夏盐池荒漠草原区人工灌丛生态系统的总初级生产力（Gross primary productivity,GPP）和蒸散（Evapotranspiration,ET）。结果表明：（1）参数优化可以改善Biome-BGC模型对荒漠草原区人工灌丛生态系统GPP和ET的模拟效果,参数优化后模拟的GPP和ET均更接近于观测值,其中月尺度的模拟效果更佳;（2）基于PEST的Biome-BGC模型参数优化方法具有较强的普适性,优化后的参数可推广应用于荒漠草原区人工灌丛生态系统长时间序列的GPP和ET模拟;（3）宁夏盐池荒漠草原区人工灌丛生态系统的GPP在1986-2018年呈缓慢上升趋势,增幅为1.47 g C m^-2 a^-1,但ET的年际变化率较大,且无显著变化趋势。     

Spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem carbon fluxes in a broadleaved forest in Northern Germany

Carbon fluxes were investigated in a mature deciduous forest, located in Northern Germany (53°47′N–10°36′E), by means of eddy‐covariance technique, stand survey and models. This forest has been managed following a concept of nature‐oriented forestry since the 1980s. One of the goals of the study was to test whether changed management led to increased carbon sequestration. The forest contains several broadleaved tree species. Depending on wind direction, the fetch‐area of the eddy‐covariance data was dominated by different tree species. Three subplots dominated by Oak, Beech or Alder/Ash could be distinguished from the tower data. In each of these subplots, 30 × 30 m² areas were defined to analyse leaf area index, litterfall and the increase of the wood biomass. Eddy‐covariance analysis showed that the gross primary productivity (GPP′) was higher in the Oak subplot (?1794 g C m^?2 yr^?1) in comparison with the Beech plot and the Alder/Ash plot (?1470 and ?1595 g C m^?2 yr^?1, respectively). The total ecosystem respiration (TER) was the highest in the Alder/Ash‐dominated subplot (1401 g C m^?2 yr^?1) followed by the Oak plot and the Beech plot (1235 and 1174 g C m^?2 yr^?1, respectively). The resulting net ecosystem productivity (NEP) was ?559 g C m^?2 yr^?1 for the Oak‐dominated subplot, ?295 g C m^?2 yr^?1 for the Beech plot and ?193 g C m^?2 yr^?1 for the Alder/Ash plot. From Stand survey and modelling, the net primary productivity was estimated as 1103, 702 and 671 g C m^?2 yr^?1 in the Oak, Beech and Alder/Ash plot, respectively. Also carbon flux with litterfall was the highest in the Oak plot 343 g C m^?2 yr^?1 and lowest in Alder/Ash plot (197 g m^?2 yr^?1) with the Beech plot in between (228 g m^?2 yr^?1). The observations indicate an increase of the proportion of litterfall with increasing GPP′ and a different ability of carbon sequestration of the three stands in medium temporary scale. Only in the Oak stand that comprised the oldest trees and the most structured canopy the carbon sequestration was increased compared with conventionally managed forests.     

Water-mediated responses of ecosystem carbon fluxes to climatic change in a temperate steppe

Global warming and a changing precipitation regime could have a profound impact on ecosystem carbon fluxes, especially in arid and semiarid grasslands where water is limited. A field experiment manipulating temperature and precipitation has been conducted in a temperate steppe in northern China since 2005. A paired, nested experimental design was used, with increased precipitation as the primary factor and warming simulated by infrared radiators as the secondary factor. The results for the first 2 yr showed that gross ecosystem productivity (GEP) was higher than ecosystem respiration, leading to net C sink (measured by net ecosystem CO(2) exchange, NEE) over the growing season in the study site. The interannual variation of NEE resulted from the difference in mean annual precipitation. Experimental warming reduced GEP and NEE, whereas increased precipitation stimulated ecosystem C and water fluxes in both years. Increased precipitation also alleviated the negative effect of experimental warming on NEE. The results demonstrate that water availability plays a dominant role in regulating ecosystem C and water fluxes and their responses to climatic change in the temperate steppe of northern China.     

Recovery of ponderosa pine ecosystem carbon and water fluxes from thinning and stand‐replacing fire

Carbon uptake by forests is a major sink in the global carbon cycle, helping buffer the rising concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere, yet the potential for future carbon uptake by forests is uncertain. Climate warming and drought can reduce forest carbon uptake by reducing photosynthesis, increasing respiration, and by increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires, leading to large releases of stored carbon. Five years of eddy covariance measurements in a ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)‐dominated ecosystem in northern Arizona showed that an intense wildfire that converted forest into sparse grassland shifted site carbon balance from sink to source for at least 15 years after burning. In contrast, recovery of carbon sink strength after thinning, a management practice used to reduce the likelihood of intense wildfires, was rapid. Comparisons between an undisturbed‐control site and an experimentally thinned site showed that thinning reduced carbon sink strength only for the first two posttreatment years. In the third and fourth posttreatment years, annual carbon sink strength of the thinned site was higher than the undisturbed site because thinning reduced aridity and drought limitation to carbon uptake. As a result, annual maximum gross primary production occurred when temperature was 3 °C higher at the thinned site compared with the undisturbed site. The severe fire consistently reduced annual evapotranspiration (range of 12–30%), whereas effects of thinning were smaller and transient, and could not be detected in the fourth year after thinning. Our results show large and persistent effects of intense fire and minor and short‐lived effects of thinning on southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystem carbon and water exchanges.     

Aquatic carbon fluxes dampen the overall variation of net ecosystem productivity in the Amazon basin: An analysis of the interannual variability in the boundless carbon cycle

The river–floodplain network plays an important role in the carbon (C) cycle of the Amazon basin, as it transports and processes a significant fraction of the C fixed by terrestrial vegetation, most of which evades as CO₂ from rivers and floodplains back to the atmosphere. There is empirical evidence that exceptionally dry or wet years have an impact on the net C balance in the Amazon. While seasonal and interannual variations in hydrology have a direct impact on the amounts of C transferred through the river–floodplain system, it is not known how far the variation of these fluxes affects the overall Amazon C balance. Here, we introduce a new wetland forcing file for the ORCHILEAK model, which improves the representation of floodplain dynamics and allows us to closely reproduce data‐driven estimates of net C exports through the river–floodplain network. Based on this new wetland forcing and two climate forcing datasets, we show that across the Amazon, the percentage of net primary productivity lost to the river–floodplain system is highly variable at the interannual timescale, and wet years fuel aquatic CO₂ evasion. However, at the same time overall net ecosystem productivity (NEP) and C sequestration are highest during wet years, partly due to reduced decomposition rates in water‐logged floodplain soils. It is years with the lowest discharge and floodplain inundation, often associated with El Nino events, that have the lowest NEP and the highest total (terrestrial plus aquatic) CO₂ emissions back to atmosphere. Furthermore, we find that aquatic C fluxes display greater variation than terrestrial C fluxes, and that this variation significantly dampens the interannual variability in NEP of the Amazon basin. These results call for a more integrative view of the C fluxes through the vegetation‐soil‐river‐floodplain continuum, which directly places aquatic C fluxes into the overall C budget of the Amazon basin.