Evolutionary Aspects of the S-Related Genes of the Brassica Self-Incompatibility System: Synonymous and Nonsynonymous Base Substitutions

In the Brassicaceae, self-vs. nonself-recognition in self-incompatibility is controlled by sporophytic S-alleles. Haplotypes specifying both SRK (S-receptor kinase) and SLG (S-locus glycoprotein) are considered to play an important role in the recognition reactions. We compared the nucleotide sequences of SRK(9)(Bc) and SRK(6)(Bo). The number of nonsynonymous substitutions per site (P(n)) was lower, constrained, in the kinase than the receptor domain, while the numbers of synonymous substitutions (P(s)) in the two domains were largely comparable. Pairwise values for P(s) and P(n) were calculated among 17 operational taxonomic units, including eight SLGs, the receptor domains of two SRKs, four SRAs (S-related A) and three SRBs (S-related B), which have high homologies with each other. The values of P(s) and P(n) of SLG were mostly comparable to those of the receptor domain of SRK. Dendrograms constructed on the basis of P(n) and P(s) indicated that SRA differentiated first, followed by SRB. The differentiation of SLG alleles is one of prerequisite factors for the establishment of self-incompatibility, and the allelic differentiation has occurred more than tens of million years ago.     

A Quantitative Method Measuring Karyotype Asymmetry and Its Application to Evolutionary Study

Proposed in this paper is a quantitative method which can be effectively used for measuring karyotype asymmetry of chromosome complements. As well known, karyotype symmetry of a complement is determined by arm ratios and relative lengths. We define the karyotype as a theoretical symmetrical karyotype in which all chromosome ann ratios are 1 and all chromosomes are equal in length. An observed complement can be assumed to have a corresponding theoretical symmetrical karyotype, and different complements with the same ploidy and the same basic number share a common theoretical symmetrical karyotype. Therefore, to measure the karyotype asymmetry of an observed complement only requires determining the differences in both arm ratios and relative lengths between the observed karyotype and its corresponding theoretical symmetrical karyotype. Based on this idea, and employing absolute value distance to measure the difference in symmetry two formulas for measuring asymmetry respectively in arm ratio and relative length are developed as follows: Here r is arm ratio (long / short); Lis relative length (long+short); k is ploidy; x is basic chromosome number; m is the number of homologous chromosomes by which both mean r and mean Late caculated, and L is the total length of a complement. D, and Dt are called arm ratio asymmetry coefficient and length asymmetry coefficient respectively. If the complements concerned have the same basic number, their karyotype asymmetry can be compared by their Dc and D~ values; the greater the D, and Dt values are, the more asymmetrical the karyotype is. When Dc = 0 and Dt = 0, the karyotype is theoretical symmetrical one. In other cases, where basic numbers compared are different, we can use Dc and Ut instead of De and Dt: In investigations on karyotype divergence between populations and chromosome evolution in a group, a plot of two dimensions, De and Dt, is easily used tn show relationships between any two chromosome complements in respect of karyotype asymmetry. Before making a plot, both D, and Dt values are standardized becaues De values are usually different from Dt in order of magnitude. In this paper, normalization is employed, with the mean being zero and square deviation being I of the standardized data set. Three examples, where karyotype data (arm ratios and relative lengths)were pubhshed earlier, are analysed in order to test the validity and sensitivity of the present method. The results are quite satisfactory. Example 1: Karyotype divergence among populations of Streptolirion volubile ssp. volubile(Commclinaceae). Dc and Dt values of five populations, one from Beijing, one from Tibet, two from Yunnan, China, and one from Japan, are calculated. Two-dimension plot (Fig.l) shows that the Japanese population is less asymmetrical than the four Chinese populations. Among the Chinese populations, the two from Yunnan are quite similar to each other in karyotype asymmetry, while they are somewhat different from Beijing and Tibet populations. These results clearly demonstrate that the karyotype di vergence among different populations has taken place though they cannot be distinguished by Levan's karyotype formula and Stebbins' 12-type system. Therefore, the present method is valid and sensitive, and is specially useful fin those cases, where karyotype differences between chromosome complements are too small to be recognized by other methods. Example 2: Homology between Triticum and Aegilops. The karyotype divergence trend within Triticum is distinct in Dt direction (Fig.2), with tetraploid species distributed in the 3rd quadrant and hexaploid in the 2nd quadrant. For Aegilops, karyotype divergence trend in Dt is not as obvious as that in Dc direction. It is interesting to note that the investigated chromosome complements of Aegilops with C genome are usually separated from those of Triticum, while those without C genome but with S or D genome are located within or near Triticum distribution area (Fig.2). This result might indicate that C genome of Aegilops has not been introduced into Triticum, but S and D genomes are closely related to Triticum genome constitution. Example 3: Karyotype evolution in the Taxodiaceae. Karyotype asymmetrization in the Taxodiaceae has taken place in both Dc and Dt directions. ( Fig.3 ) Cryptomeria fortunei is characterized by the most symmetrical karyotype among the taxa studied. The karyotypes of Taxodium and Metasequoia are more asymmetrical than that of Cryptomeria. In contrast, Cunninghamia and Taiwania have the most asymmetrical karyotypes in the family. This trend of karyotype asymmetry divergence coincides with the generally recognized phylogenetic pattern of the family. The conclusion is thatkaryotype of the Taxodiaceae has evolved from symmetrical to asymmetrical type. Scutcheon noninitial, exuvial touchiness alitizing. Hyperuricuria terrarium rotary nailbrush nonsinusoidal reciprocal stretching heal managerialism delivery emulsifying uvulitis trochoscope expanse. 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Fruiting in Sphaerobolus with Special Reference to Light

Sphaerobolus grows and, provided there is sufficient illumination,fruits readily on oatmeal agar or on malt agar. No effect oflight on vegetative growth can be demonstrated. On the maltmedium, increased fruiting occurs with increase of nutrientup to 4 per cent, malt, but at higher concentrations fruitingis not increased and may be retarded. A chemically defined mediumwith starch as the carbon source allows fruiting, but at a lowlevel. Temperature has a profound effect on basidiocarp development;above 25 C. no fruit-bodies are normally formed although vegetativegrowth is approximately optimal at that temperature. For overallfruit-body production at 20 C, light above 100 lux is necessaryand light remains a limiting factor up to about 1, 000 lux.Under continuous light of suitable intensity, fruit-bodies continueto develop and discharge glebal-masses for many weeks. Thereis a distinct periodicity of discharge with (at 20 C.) about12 days between peaks of activity. This corresponds with thetime taken for basidiocarp initiation and development. A number of developmental stages of the basidiocarp are recognized.The final stage, glebal-mass discharge from stellately openedfruit-bodies, is indifferent to light, but all other stagesare stimulated by light. The light intensity for effective stimulationfalls during development and for the penultimate stage an intensityas low as 1 lux is effective. Only light of wave-length below500 mµ is active in overall basidiocarp development. Inthe sensitive region between 400 mµ and 500 mµ,there appear to be peaks of sensitivity around 440 mµand 480 mµ. In alternating light and darkness, simulating natural conditions,glebal-mass discharge occurs in the light periods. With a regimenof 24 hours light and 24 hours of darkness discharge is mainlyin the dark periods.     

An Appraisal of Range and Evolutionary Significance of Flower-Beetle Association,with Special Reference to Sap Beetles (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)

A range of beetle species are associated with plants and many of them reside primarily in flowers; of these Nitidulidae possess a large share. Beetles which thrive upon angiosperms exhibited a rapid rate of speciation as compared to others with different feeding habits. Hence, beetles and angiosperms have co-evolved and influenced each others’ evolution for better survival. Some flower-visiting beetles have developed special features for floral diet and other purposes like pollination, shelter, reproduction, etc. Likewise, certain flowers also have adapted structurally and physiologically to attract beetles for pollination which include pollen, nectar, floral heat etc. Although beetles are found to be amongst the pioneer flower visitors, they are not as efficient pollinator as bee and butterfly. However, they have been found to be chief pollinators for a few plant families like Magnoliaceae, Annonaceae and Palmae. Several sap beetles have been encountered in floral parts in West Bengal, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Tripura. Nature of relationships of those beetles with inflorescence and flowers were examined. None of them is yet found to be a true pollinator.     

CARDIAC MUSCLE : Its Ultrastructure in the Finch and Hummingbird with Special Reference to the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Cardiac muscle fibers of the hummingbird and finch have no transverse tubules and are smaller in diameter than those of mammalian hearts. The fibers are connected by intercalated discs which are composed of desmosomes and f. adherentes; small nexuses are often interspersed. As in cardiac muscle of several other animals, the junctional SR of the couplings is highly structured in these two birds but, in addition, and after having lost sarcolemmal contact, the junctional SR continues beyond the coupling to extend deep into the interior of the cells and to form belts around the Z-I regions of the sarcomeres. This portion of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which we have named "extended junctional SR," and which is so prominent and invariant a feature of cardiac cells of hummingbirds and finches, has not been observed in chicken cardiac cells. The morphological differences between these species of birds may be related to respective differences in heart rates characteristic for these birds.