The Comparative Biology of Closely Related Species Living in the Same Area: V. INTER- AND INTRASPECIFIC INTERFERENCE WITHIN CULTURES OF LEMNA spp. AND SALVINIA NATANS

Studies were made of the growth of populations of Lemna minor,L. polyrrhiza, L. gibba, and Salvinia natans under controlledlaboratory conditions. The intrinsic exponential growth-ratesof the clones were determined in un-crowded cultures, and thechanges in growth-rate of self-crowding cultures were measuredand interpreted in terms of an initial exponential growth-ratefollowed by a phase of arithmetic increase in weight and followedin turn by a phase in which the death of submerged and shadedfronds caused a decline from the arithmetic rate of growth.Mean frond weight declined in self-crowding cultures (exceptof L. gibba). Mixed cultures of two species were examined under self-crowdingconditions and changes in the proportions of the species werefollowed. Whereas the total weight of mixed cultures remainedvery constant between replicates, there was wide variation inthe proportions of components. The variation in the two componentswas most closely correlated (negatively) when the struggle forexistence was most evenly balanced. The mean frond weight ofthe losing component declined during the experiments. The order of decreasing vigour of species measured by variousparameters was as follows: Relative (intrinsic) growth-rate: L. minor > S. natans > L. gibba > L. polyrrhiza Arithmetic growth-rate when crowded: S. natans > L. polyrrhiza > L. gibba > L. minor Asymptotic yield per culture: L. polyrrhiza > L. minor > S. natans > L. gibba Success in mixed cultures: The success of a species in mixture could not be predicted fromthe parameters of growth in pure culture. Morphologic featuressuch as the gibbosity of L. gibba     

Specific interactions in the physiology of flowering and gibbosity of Lemna gibba G3

Fronds of Lemna gibba G3 became conspicuously gibbous when ethrel,an ethylenereleasing compound, was added to the nutrient medium.Maximal gibbosity was obtained at ethrel concentrations of 1µg/ml and higher. Unlike the chelating agent, EDDHA, whichcauses profuse flowering and markedly gibbous fronds under long-dayconditions, ethrel did not affect flowering. In the presenceof an optimal concentration of EDDHA (10 µ/ml), ethreleven significantly inhibited flowering and caused developmentof excessively gibbous fronds. Autoclaved gibberellic acid specifically negated the ethreleffect as it does that of EDDHA. Three decomposition productsof GA₃, allogibberic acid, epiallogibberic acid and gibbericacid, also nullified flowering and gibbosity in the presenceof EDDHA. A fourth decomposition product of GA₃, epigibbericacid, inhibited gibbosity but hardly affected flowering. Salicylic acid was confirmed to affect flowering and gibbosityin L. gibba G3. However, contrary to an earlier report, it didnot induce flowering under short-day conditions. (Received January 10, 1976; )     

Gibberellin-EDDHA interaction in flowering and gibbosity of Lemna gibba G3

The effect of gibberellic acid (GA₃), in the presence of EDDHA,on the flowering and gibbosity of Lemna gibba G3 was studied.At 10 ppm and at higher concentrations of GA₃ the EDDHA-effect,i.e. profuse flowering and conspicuously gibbous fronds, wascompletely nullified. (Received July 15, 1974; )     

Metabolism of Glycollate by Lemna minor L. Grown on Nitrate or Ammonium as Nitrogen Source

Marques, I. A., Oberholzer, M. J. and Erismann, K. H. 1985.Metabolism of glycollate by Lemna minor L. grown on nitrateor ammonium as nitrogen source.—J. exp. Bot. 36: 1685–1697. Duckweed, Lemna minor L., grown on inorganic nutrient solutionscontaining either NH₄⁺ or NO₃^– as nitrogen source wasallowed to assimilate [1-¹⁴C]- or [2-¹⁴C]glycollate during a20 min period in darkness or in light. The incorporation ofradioactivity into water-soluble metabolites, the insolublefraction, and into the CO₂ released was measured. In additionthe extractable activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylasewas determined. During the metabolism of [2-¹⁴C]glycollate in darkness, as wellas in the light, NH₄⁺ grown plants evolved more ¹⁴CO₂ than NO₃^–grown plants. Formate was labelled only from [2-¹⁴C]glycollateand in NH₄⁺ grown plants it was significantly less labelledin light than in darkness. In NO₃^– grown plants formateshowed similar radioactivity after dark and light labelling.The radioactivity in glycine was little influenced by the nitrogensource. Amounts of radioactivity in serine implied that thefurther metabolism of serine was reduced in darkness comparedwith its metabolism in the light under both nitrogen regimes.In illuminated NH₄⁺ plants, serine was labelled through a pathwaystarting from phosphoglycerate. After [1-¹⁴C]glycollate feedingNH₄⁺ grown plants contained markedly more radioactive aspartateand malate than NO₃^– plants indicating a stimulated phosphoenolpyruvatecarboxylation in plants grown on NH₄⁺. Key words: Photorespiration, glycollate, nitrogen, Lemna     

Interaction of naphthol with EDDHA/salicylic acid in flowering and gibbosity of Lemna gibba G3

Flowering and gibbosity in Lemna gibba G3, as enhanced or inducedby optimal concentrations of salicylic acid or EDDHA, was specificallyinhibited by 10 µg/ml and higher concentrations of ß-naphthol.These effects of ß-naphthol are similar to those ofbreakdown products of GA_s. (Received March 20, 1978; )     

DNA synthesis as related to the reappearance of "light interruption rhythm" in a long-day duckweed, Lemna gibba G3

DNA synthesis in the light perturbation period and its relationto the reappearance, due to light perturbation, of once faded-out"light interruption rhythm" in a long-day duckweed, Lemna gibbaG 3, were studied. After long continuous darkness, the duckweedincorporated ³H-thymidine into both nuclear and satellite DNA_sunder a light condition, but into satellite DNA alone undera dark condition. The number of dividing cells in frond epidermisincreased in proportion to the length of the light perturbationperiod. This increase was inhibited by 5-fluorodeoxyuridine.From these and previous results we conclude that nuclear DNAnewly synthesized in the light is intimately related with thereappearance of the rhythm. (Received June 15, 1970; )     

Reversal of sucrose inhibition of Lemna flowering by adenine derivatives

Sucrose inhibition of flowering in Lemna perpusilla 6746 wasat least partially reversed by 5'-AMP, cyclic 3',5'-AMP, 5'-ADP,5'-ATP and K₂HPO₄. These results are in contrast to those reportedfor L. gibba in which reversal was effected by cyclic AMP, butnot by other adenine derivatives. ¹ This work was supported by National Science Foundation GrantGB-12955. (Received June 11, 1973; )     

Flowering and Endogenous Levels of Plant Hormones in Lemna Species

The occurrence and endogenous level of various plant hormoneswere measured for the short-day plants Lemna paucicostata 151and 381 and the long-day plant Lemna gibba G3 to determine whetherany of them are involved in the photoperiodic control of flowering.ABA, IAA, GA₁, GA₂₉, GA₃₄, GA₅₃, trans- and cis-zeatin, trans-and cis-ribosyl zeatin, N⁶-(²-isopentenyl) adenine and N⁶-(²-isopentenyl)adenosine were definitely detected in each species, while GA₄was only detected in L. gibba G3 and GA₂₀ was only detectedin L. paucicostata 151. The endogenous levels of ABA and IAAwere in the range of 1–7 ng/g fr wt and were not significantlydifferent in vegetative and flowering plants. The endogenousgibberellin levels were generally higher in Lemna grown underlong-day rather than short-day conditions. The endogenous cytokininlevels were almost the same in both flowering and vegetativeplants of L. paucicostata 151 and 381. In L. gibba G3, however,the level of cis-ribosyl zeatin, N⁶-(²-isopentenyl) adenineand N⁶-(²-sopentenyl) adenosine were higher in vegetative thanin flowering plants. These results indicate that there is not necessarily a directrelation between endogenous plant hormone levels and flowering,and that the chemical basis for the photoperiodic control offlowering cannot be explained solely by changes in hormone levels.The possibility remains, however, that one or more of the planthormones has some influence of secondary importance on the floweringprocess in Lemna. (Received January 29, 1986; Accepted July 12, 1986)     

Lack of Correlation between Senescence and Stomatal Aperture in Lemna gibba G3

Stomata on the frond of Lemna gibba G3 were found to be non-functional;they remain open regardless of treatments that lead to eitherpromotion or inhibition of frond senescence. These findingsare not in accordance with the notion that leaf senescence isprimarily mediated through the stomatal behavior. ¹Present address: Department of Botany, North Carolina StateUniversity, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, U.S.A. (Received July 13, 1989; Accepted May 8, 1990)     

The Use of Chemical and Infra-red Spectral Analyses to Verify the Identification of Two Species of Duckweed, Lemna minor L. and Lemna gibba L. Grown Under Defined Conditions

Flat forms of the fronds of Lemna gibba L., used widely in laboratoryexperiments, can be easily confused with Lemna minor Chemicalanalyses of the two species, grown under defined laboratoryconditions, showed clear distinctions between the two speciesin relation to total protein content and the content of individualmonosaccharides. Infra-red spectral analysis confirmed the chemicaldata for protein content and also revealed differences in thetypes of proteins present in the two species. Chemical and infra-redspectral analyses, particularly the amide I: carbohydrate absorbanceratio, provide a rapid and reliable means of verifying betweenthe two species, which are often difficult to identify withcertainty from morphological differences. Key words: Gibbosity, infra-red spectroscopy, Lemna gibba, Lemna minor, monosaccharides, proteins     

Effects of nitrogen nutrition on salt-stressed Nicotiana tabacum var. Samsun in vitro plantlets

Tobacco shoots were grown in vitro for 35 d, in MS culture mediummodified to include various sources (nitrate-N, ammonium-N ora mixture) and levels (0–120 mM) of N, and in the presenceof 0–180 mM NaCI or iso-osmotic concentrations of mannitol.Growth of control plantlets was significantly inhibited whenNH₄⁺-N was the sole N source, and at high (120 mM) NO^–₃-N supply. Under conditions of salt stress (90 and 180 mM NaCI)growth was repressed, with roots being more severely affectedthan shoots. Salinity also inhibited root emergence in vitro.The only alleviation of the salt stress by nitrate nutritionobserved in this study was on shoot growth parameters of plantletsgrown on 60 mM NO^–₃-N and 90 mM NaCI. Although both weresignificantly inhibited by NaCI, nitrate reduc-tase activitywas more severely affected than nitrate uptake. When mannitolreplaced NaCI in the culture medium, similar Inhibition of growth,nutrient uptake and enzyme activity were recorded. These observations,together with the relatively low recorded values for Na⁺ andCI^– uptake, indicate that under in vitro salt stress conditionsthe negative effects of NaCI are primarily osmotic. Key words: Growth, nitrogen metabolism, osmotic stress, salinity     

Inhibition of Flowering in the Long-Day Plant Lemna gibba G3 by Hutner's Medium and its Reversal by Medium Modification

The long-day plant Lemna gibba G3 flowers normally in E medium(Hoagland-type medium plus 30 µM EDTA) but in 0.5 H mediumthere is no flowering. Ammonium is present in 0.5 H medium andis known to inhibit flowering in L. gibba G3, but even in NH₄⁺-free0.5 H medium there is virtually no flowering under continuouslight. Increasing the phosphate concentration of the NH₄⁺-free0.5 H medium from 1.15 ITIM to 12 or 16 mM results in substantialflowering. Decreasing the EDTA concentration from 850 µIMto 250 µM, or raising the nitrate concentration from 4mM to 12 mM, results in only a small increase in flowering.If the decrease in EDTA and increase in nitrate are combinedwith the increase in phosphate, however, the flowering responseis nearly as good as that obtained using E medium. Thus, withthese three changes the inhibitory effect of NH₄⁺free 0.5 Hmedium for flowering in L. gibba G3 is almost completely reversed In the above studies flowering was not limited by daylength.When plants were grown on E medium under an 11 hour daylengthwhere flowering is limited by daylength, decreasing the phosphateconcentration in the medium reduced flowering, but increasingthe phosphate concentration in the medium did not stimulateflowering. Thus, when flowering is limited by daylength, highphosphate will not cause flowering, but a certain level of phosphateappears to be necessary for the expression of photoinductionunder long days. (Received January 14, 1986; Accepted June 24, 1986)     

Characterization of Senescence in Lemna gibba G3: A Determinate Growth System

Frond senescence in Lemna gibba G3 was characterized, and itscontrol by light, ABA and kinetin investigated. The plant exhibitsa determinate growth pattern with a frond producing a set numberof daughter fronds before undergoing senescence and death regardlessof whether or not it flowers. When a frond was cut in half,the distal half (half frond) which lacks any meristem underwentrapid senescence as compared with intact fronds. In both intactand half fronds, the onset of senescence was accelerated byABA and retarded by kinetin. Continuous white light acceleratedsenescence in both intact and half fronds over the dark controls.Under different photoperiodic light regime, the pace of daughterfrond production is accelerated in proportion to the lengthof light period. In half fronds, however, very short photoperiodiclight treatments (e.g. 1L: 23D or 3L: 21D) rather delayed senescenceover the dark controls. Two separate light control systems operatingin opposite directions in Lemana senescence appear to exist. ¹Present address: Department of Biology, Yonsei University,Seoul 120-749, Korea ²Present address: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Aero SpaceBuilding, Rm. 323, 901 D Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20251-2200, U.S.A. (Received July 13, 1989; Accepted May 8, 1990)     

Flowering of the long-day plant, Lemna gibba, under short-day schedules composed of red and far-red light

Flowering in Lemna gibba, a long-day duckweed, can be inducedunder a short-day condition when the photoperiodic regimes areR₇FR₃ (7 hr red followed by 3 hr far-red), R₅FR₅ and R₃FR₇.This indicates the necessity of a proper balance between redand far-red effects for flowering. The flowering induced bythese regimes is inhibited by a brief exposure to red givenat the start of darkness and this inhibition is reversed bysubsequent exposure to far-red. Thus, the red/far-red reversibleeffect is found only at the beginning of darkness for floweringof L. gibba. However, flowering of L. gibba is promoted by a red light breakgiven near the middle of a 14 hr dark period. The promotiveeffect is not reversed by subsequent exposure to far-red, i.e.,the effect of the red break converts from inhibition to promotionas when given later in the dark period, which suggests the involvementof a timing mechanism. (Received July 21, 1973; )     

A comparison of nitrate transport in four different rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars

As rice can use both nitrate (NO₃^-) and ammonium (NH₄⁺), we have tested the hypothesis that the shift in the pattern of cultivars grown in Jiangsu Province reflects the ability of the plants to exploit NO₃^- as a nitrogen (N) source. Four rice cultivars were grown in solution culture for comparison of their growth on NO₃^- and NH₄⁺ nitrogen sources. All four types of rice, Xian You 63 (XY63), Yang Dao 6 (YD), Nong Keng 57 (NK) and Si You 917 (SY917), grew well and produced similar amounts of shoot biomass with 1 mmol/L NH₄⁺ as the only N source. However, the roots of NK were significantly smaller in comparison with the other cultivars. When supplied with 1 mmol/L NO₃^-, YD produced the greatest biomass; while NK achieved the lowest growth among the four cultivars. Electrophysiological measurements on root rhizodermal cells showed that the NO₃^--elicited changes in membrane potential (ΔE_m) of these four rice cultivars were significantly different when exposed to low external NO₃^- (<1 mmol/L); while they were very similar at high external NO₃^- (10 mmol/L). The root cell membrane potentials of YD and XY63 were more responsive to low external NO₃^- than those of NK and SY917. The ΔE_m values for YD and XY63 rhizodermal cells were almost the same at both 0.1 mmol/L and 1 mmol/L NO₃^-; while for the NK and SY917 the values became larger as the external NO₃^- increased. For YD cultivar, ΔE_m was measured over a range of NO₃^- concentrations and a Michaelis-Menten fit to the data gave a K_m value of 0.17 mmol/L. Net NO₃^- uptake depletion kinetics were also compared and for some cultivars (YD and XY63) a single-phase uptake system with first order kinetics best fitted the data; while other cultivars (ND and SY917) showed a better fit to two uptake systems. These uptake systems had two affinity ranges: one had a similar K_m in all the cultivars (0.2 mmol/L); the other much higher affinity system (0.03 mmol/L) was only present in NK and SY917. The expression pattern of twelve different NO₃^- transporter genes was tested using specific primers, but only OsNRT1.1 and OsNRT2.1 expression could be detected showing significant differences between the four rice cultivars. The results from both the physiological and molecular experiments do provide some support for the hypothesis that the more popular rice cultivars grown in Jiangsu Province may be better at using NO₃^- as an N source.     

Resemblance of growth substances to metal chelators with respect to their actions on duckweed growth

Action patterns of IAA, KIN and GA on the growth of Lemna gibbaG3 are similar to those reported for agents chelating both cupricand ferric ions. Relatively high doses of growth substances,e.g.10^–6 M IAA or KIN and ^–4 M GA, inhibit developmentof photoperiodically induced flower buds and antagonisticallypromote frond multiplication; whereas, at relatively low doses,e.g. 10^–9 M IAA or KIN and ^–5 M GA, they acceleratethe process occurring in the latter half of the induction periodto enhance flower induction. Complex forming abilities of IAA,KIN and GA with cupric and ferric ions are demonstrated spectrophotometrically.Moreover, the ferrous ion-dependent oscillatory change in reproductiveand vegetative photophilies of duckweed is eliminated by KINbut not by IAA and GA. Of the three growth substances tried,KIN alone shows an affinity for ferrous ions. (Received April 5, 1971; )     

Nitrate Effects on Growth of the First Four Main Stem Leaves of a Range of Temperate Cereals and Pasture Grasses

The effects of different applied NO₃^– concentrations onextension growth and final length and area of leaves 1–4of five cereals and six pasture grasses of temperate originwere examined. Increased applied NO₃^– in the range 0.1–0.5.0mol m^–3 caused decreased duration of growth but increasedgrowth rate and final length of leaves 2–4 of the cerealsAvena saliva, Hordeum vulgare, Secale cereale, x Triticosecaleand Triticum aestivum. For all cereals, increased NO₃^–resulted in increased area of leaves 1–4. Pasture grasseswere supplied either 0.5 or 50 mol m^–3 NO₃^–. Increasedapplied NO₃^– (0.5–5.0 mol m^–3) resulted indecreased duration of growth and increased growth rate and finalarea of leaves 1–4 of Bromus wiltdenowii, leaves 2–4ofFestuca arundinaceae and leaves 3 and 4 of Lolium muitiflorum.In addition, length of leaves 3 and 4 of B. witidenowii increasedwith increased NO₃^–. Increased NO₃^– resulted inincreased area of leaves 2–4 of Dactylis gtomerata andLolium perenne and leaves 3 and 4 of Phalaris aquaiica but hadno effect on extension growth of all three species. Avena sativa L, oat, Hordeum vulgare L, barley, Secale cereale L, rye, x Triticosecale Wittm, triticale, Triticum aestivum L, wheat, Bromus willdenowii Kunth, prairie grass, Dactylis gtomerata L, cocksfoot, Festuca arundinaceae Shreb, tall fescue, Lolium multijlorum Lam, Italian ryegrass, Lolium perenne L, perennial ryegrass, Phalaris aquatica L, nitrate, leaf extension, leaf expansion     

Responses of Noogoora Burr (Xanthium occidentale Bertol.) to Nitrogen Supply and Carbon Dioxide Enrichment

We studied the responses of Xanthium occidentale (Bertol.) (cockleburor Noogoora burr), a noxious weed, to atmospheric CO₂ enrichmentand nitrate-N concentrations in the root zone ranging from 0.5to 25 mM. CO₂ enrichment (1500 cm³ m^–3) increased dry-matterproduction to about the same extent (18 per cent) at all levelsof supplied N: most of the increment in dry matter was distributedequally between leaves and roots so that there was little effecton shoot-to-root dry-weight ratios. Growth was stimulated greatlyby N and plateaued at 12 mM supplied N. Shoot-to-root dry-weightand total N ratios increased with increasing N supply. CO₂ enrichmenthad no effect on the total amount of N accumulated by plants,but increased the N-use efficiency of leaves. Enriched plantshad lower concentrations and quantities of N in their leavesthan controls, and therefore lower shoot-to-root total N ratios.Little free NO₃^– accumulated in organs of control or enrichedplants. NO₃^– was the major form of N in xylem sap fromdetopped plants at low supplied NO₃-N, but amino N was equalin importance at high supplied NO₃-N in control and enrichedplants. Concentrations of NO₃^– were lower in the xylemsap of CO₂ enriched plants. It was concluded that the betterN-use efficiency of CO₂ enriched plants could result in increasedgrowth of X. occidentale in regions of marginal soil fertilityas atmospheric levels of CO₂ increase. CO₂ enrichment, nitrogen, Xanthium, Noogoora burr, cocklebur     

Nitrate Effects on Growth of the First Four Main Stem Leaves of a Range of Temperate Cereals and Pasture Grasses

The effects of different applied NO₃^– concentrations onextension growth and final length and area of leaves 1–4of five cereals and six pasture grasses of temperate originwere examined. Increased applied NO₃^– in the range 0.1–50mol m^–3; caused decreased duration of growth but increasedgrowth rate and final length of leaves 2–4 of the cerealsAvena saliva, Hordeum vulgare, Secale cereale x Triticosecaleand Triticum aestivum. For all cereals, increased NO₃^–resulted in increased area of leaves 1-4. Pasture grasses weresupplied either 0.5 or 50 mol m^–3; NO₃^–. Increasedapplied NO₃^– (0.5–50 mol m^–3) resulted indecreased duration of growth and increased growth rate and finalarea of leaves 1–4 of Bromus willdenowii leaves 2–4of Festuca arundinaceae and leaves 3 and 4 of Lolium multiflorum.In addition, length of leaves 3 and 4 of B. willdenowii increasedwith increased NO₃. Increased NO₃ resulted in increased areaof leaves 2–4 of Daciylis glomerata and Lolium perenneand leaves 3 and 4 of Phalaris aquatica but had no effect onextension growth of all three species. Avena saliva L., oat, Hordeum vulgare L., barley, Secale cereaie L., rye, x Triticosecale Wittm, triticale, Triticum aestivum L., wheat, Bromus willdenowii Kunth, prairie grass, Dactylis glomerata L., cocksfoot, Festuca arundinaceae Shreb, tall fescue, Lolium multiflorum Lam, Italian ryegrass, Lolium perenne L, perennial ryegrass, Phalaris aquatica L, nitrate,, leaf extension, leaf expansion     

Endogenous light-on rhythm in respiration of a long-day duckweed, Lemna gibba G3 III. Relationship to frond production

Relationship between the C>2-uptake rhythm and frond productionin a long-day duckweed, Lemna gibba G3, was investigated. The rate of frond production and the amplitude of the rhythmwere dependent on light intensity. Photosynthetic inhibitors,CMU and DCMU, at concentrations effective in stopping frondproduction, abolished the O₂-uptake rhythm after a lag of 1day. In the presence of inhibitors of protein and RNA syntheses,ETH, CH and TU, at concentrations which brought about completeinhibition of frond production, the O₂-uptake rhythm disappeared.FUdR, an inhibitor of DNA synthesis, did not eliminate the rhythmalthough it suppressed frond production. This indicates a ratherindirect correlation between the rhythm and the rate of frondproduction which, in turn, is probably related to photosynthesis.The rhythm may be more directly correlated with the cell expansion. (Received July 27, 1971; )