Anti-ice nucleation activity in xylem extracts from trees that contain deep supercooling xylem parenchyma cells

Boreal hardwood species, including Japanese white birch (Betula platyphylla Sukat. var. japonica Hara), Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata Sieb. et Zucc.), katsura tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum Sieb. et Zucc.), Siebold’s beech (Fagus crenata Blume), mulberry (Morus bombycis Koidz.), and Japanese rowan (Sorbus commixta Hedl.), had xylem parenchyma cells (XPCs) that adapt to subfreezing temperatures by deep supercooling. Crude extracts from xylem in all these trees were found to have anti-ice nucleation activity that promoted supercooling capability of water as measured by a droplet freezing assay. The magnitude of increase in supercooling capability of water droplets in the presence of ice-nucleation bacteria, Erwinia ananas, was higher in the ranges from 0.1 to 1.7 °C on addition of crude xylem extracts than freezing temperature of water droplets on addition of glucose in the same concentration (100 mosmol/kg). Crude xylem extracts from C. japonicum provided the highest supercooling capability of water droplets. Our additional examination showed that crude xylem extracts from C. japonicum exhibited anti-ice nucleation activity toward water droplets containing a variety of heterogeneous ice nucleators, including ice-nucleation bacteria, not only E. ananas but also Pseudomonas syringae (NBRC3310) or Xanthomonas campestris, silver iodide or airborne impurities. However, crude xylem extracts from C. japonicum did not affect homogeneous ice nucleation temperature as analyzed by emulsified micro-water droplets. The possible role of such anti-ice nucleation activity in crude xylem extracts in deep supercooling of XPCs is discussed.     

Deep supercooling xylem parenchyma cells of katsura tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum) contain flavonol glycosides exhibiting high anti-ice nucleation activity

Xylem parenchyma cells (XPCs) of boreal hardwood species adapt to sub-freezing temperatures by deep supercooling to maintain a liquid state of intracellular water near −40 °C. Our previous study found that crude xylem extracts from such tree species exhibited anti-ice nucleation activity to promote supercooling of water. In the present study, thus, we attempted to identify the causative substances of supercooling. Crude xylem extracts from katsura tree ( Cercidiphyllum japonicum ), of which XPCs exhibited deep supercooling to −40 °C, were prepared by methanol extraction. The crude extracts were purified by liquid–liquid extraction and then by silica gel column chromatography. Although all the fractions obtained after each purification step exhibited some levels of anti-ice nucleation activity, only the most active fraction was retained to proceed to the subsequent level of purification. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of a fraction with the highest level of activity revealed four peaks with high levels of anti-ice nucleation activity in the range of 2.8–9.0 °C. Ultraviolet (UV), mass and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra revealed that these four peaks corresponded to quercetin-3- O - β -glucoside (Q3G), kaempferol-7- O - β -glucoside (K7G), 8-methoxykaempferol-3- O - β -glucoside (8MK3G) and kaempferol-3- O - β -glucoside (K3G). Microscopic observations confirmed the presence of flavonoids in cytoplasms of XPCs. These results suggest that diverse kinds of anti-ice nucleation substances, including flavonol glycosides, may have important roles in deep supercooling of XPCs.     

Change of supercooling capability in solutions containing different kinds of ice nucleators by flavonol glycosides from deep supercooling xylem parenchyma cells in trees

Deep supercooling xylem parenchyma cells (XPCs) in Katsura tree contain flavonol glycosides with high supercooling-facilitating capability in solutions containing the ice nucleation bacterium (INB) Erwinia ananas, which is thought to have an important role in deep supercooling of XPCs. The present study, in order to further clarify the roles of these flavonol glycosides in deep supercooling of XPCs, the effects of these supercooling-facilitating (anti-ice nucleating) flavonol glycosides, kaempferol 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (K3Glc), kaempferol 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (K7Glc) and quercetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (Q3Glc), in buffered Milli-Q water (BMQW) containing different kinds of ice nucleators, including INB Xanthomonas campestris, silver iodide and phloroglucinol, were examined by a droplet freezing assay. The results showed that all of the flavonol glycosides promoted supercooling in all solutions containing different kinds of ice nucleators, although the magnitudes of supercooling capability of each flavonol glycoside changed in solutions containing different kinds of ice nucleators. On the other hand, these flavonol glycosides exhibited complicated nucleating reactions in BMQW, which did not contain identified ice nucleators but contained only unidentified airborne impurities. Q3Glc exhibited both supercooling-facilitating and ice nucleating capabilities depending on the concentrations in such water. Both K3Glc and K7Glc exhibited only ice nucleation capability in such water. It was also shown by an emulsion freezing assay in BMQW that K3Glc and Q3Glc had no effect on homogeneous ice nucleation temperature, whereas K7Glc increased ice nucleation temperature. The results indicated that each flavonol glycoside affected ice nucleation by very complicated and varied reactions. More studies are necessary to determine the exact roles of these flavonol glycosides in deep supercooling of XPCs in which unidentified heterogeneous ice nucleators may exist.     

High accumulation of soluble sugars in deep supercooling Japanese white birch xylem parenchyma cells

Seasonal changes in the accumulation of soluble sugars in extracellular freezing cortical parenchyma cells and deep supercooling xylem parenchyma cells in Japanese white birch (Betula platyphylla var. japonica) were compared to identify the effects of soluble sugars on the mechanism of deep supercooling, which keeps the liquid state of water in cells under extremely low temperatures for long periods. Soluble sugars in both tissues were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the concentrations of sugars in cells were estimated by histological observation of occupancy rates of parenchyma cells in each tissue. Relative and equilibrium melting points of parenchyma cells were measured by differential thermal analysis and cryoscanning electron microscopy, respectively. In both xylem and cortical parenchyma cells, amounts of sucrose, raffinose and stachyose increased in winter, but amounts of fructose and glucose exhibited little change throughout the entire year. In addition, no sugars were found to be specific for either tissue. Combined results of HPLC analyses, histological observation and melting point analyses confirmed that the concentration of sugars was much higher in xylem cells than in cortical cells. It is thought that the higher concentration of soluble sugars in xylem cells may contribute to facilitation of deep supercooling in xylem cells by depressing the nucleation temperature.