Protecting communities in health research from exploitation

Guidelines for health research focus on protecting individual research subjects. Yet several commentators have argued that protecting individual subjects, while undoubtedly important, is not sufficient to ensure ethical research. It is also vital to protect the communities involved in health research. In particular, a number of studies have been criticized on the grounds that they exploited host communities. Although these criticisms have received a good deal of attention, there has been no systematic analysis of what constitutes community exploitation in health research, nor an assessment of what safeguards are needed to protect against it. This is a serious deficiency. The absence of an analysis of community exploitation makes it impossible to ensure that host communities are protected against exploitation. The absence of an analysis also raises the possibility that charges of exploitation may block important research, without any way of assessing whether the charges are warranted. The present paper attempts to address these concerns by providing an analysis of community exploitation and, based on this analysis, determining what safeguards are needed to protect communities in health research against exploitation.     

Participants' perceptions of research benefits in an African genetic epidemiology study

Background: Both the Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences and the Helsinki Declaration emphasize that the potential benefits of research should outweigh potential harms; consequently, some work has been conducted on participants' perception of benefits in therapeutic research. However, there appears to be very little work conducted with participants who have joined non‐therapeutic research. This work was done to evaluate participants' perception of benefits in a genetic epidemiological study by examining their perception of the potential benefits of enrollment. Methods: In‐depth interviews lasting between 45 and 60 minutes were conducted with a convenient sample of 25 ill patients and 25 healthy accompanying relatives enrolled in a genetic epidemiological study of tuberculosis. Recorded interviews were transcribed and analyzed using content analysis. Results: Participants perceived that research was beneficial and some of the benefits included the generation of new knowledge, finding the cause of diseases, as well as the control, eradication and prevention of disease. Some thought that research was risky whilst others thought that the benefits outweighed the risks. Conclusion: Participants perceived research to be beneficial and most of them thought that, though it was risky, the benefits outweighed the risks. It is our view that researchers need to give serious consideration to participant's perception of benefits in designing their consent forms, to see to the fulfillment of achievable goals.     

Genetic systems of red cell blood groups in goats.

Evidence is presented for six genetic systems of goat red cell blood groups. The A system presently consists of one specificity, two alleles, two phenotypes (A1 and no-A1) and appears to be homologous to the A system of sheep. The B system, like its homologue in sheep, is very complex. Fourteen of 21 specificities detected in the present study, i.e. B2, B3, B4, B5, B7, B8, B9, B10, B11, B14, B15, B16, B17 and B20, belong to the B system which involves a large number of phenogroups (31 different B phenogroups identified in 26 sires). Because of their homology with sheep C and R systems, two other genetic systems of goat blood groups are named C and R respectively. Each of the two goat systems is presently a one blood group specificity, two phenotype (C12 and no-C12; R and no-R detectable on the red cells) two allele system. Two specificities, namely E6 and E18, belong to a genetic system called E in which four phenotypes are under the control of two alleles codominant and one recessive at a single locus. The F system involves but a single pair of alleles and two phenotypes (F19 and no-F19). Because of its low frequency in the goats tested, the X13 specificity remains unassigned.     

Caprine blood groups. 1. The B system

Twelve of 24 monospecific caprine reagents produced by absorption of alloimmune antisera identified a complex blood group system of goats which was designated B, based on the results of a small comparison test with ovine reagents. The frequencies of the 12 B factors differed significantly among the Australian Angora, Texan Angora, Cashmere, and Dairy goat breeds. Three of the antigens detected by the reagents were shown to be related as linear subtypes, designated Ba₁, Ba₂, and Ba₃, and inherited as alleles. The segregations of B factors in 80 sire groups involving 1086 offspring demonstrated that groups of B factors (phenogroups) segregated as products of allelic genes. This work was supported by a grant from the Australian Stud Book, Alison Road, Randwick, New South Wales 2031, Australia.     

An equivalence between models of restricted selection and genetic groups

Summary An equivalence between a model of restricted selection and a model of genetic groups is presented. This correspondence leads to a realization of how genetic groups account for selection. Specifically, genetic groups act to remove the covariance between predictions of sire merit and functions of the true selection differentials. Further results illustrate a correspondence between models of selection on random effects and models of selection on residuals. Application of the results is useful, not in establishing concrete definitions for the structure of genetic groups, but in the analysis of how groups account for selection.     

The inheritance mode of simian-type E,F, and GH blood groups in cynomolgus monkeys

The mode of inheritance of four different red cell antigens (E^cy, F^cy, G^cy, and H^cy), detected by alloimmune reagents prepared by us for the cynomolgus monkey, was studied. The results of the segregation analysis suggest that each antigen is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Both the random sample analysis and family study revealed that two of these red cell antigens (E^cy and F^cy) probably represent the products of two independent genes while the expression of the other two antigens (G^cy and H^cy is governed by two autosomal codominant alleles. Thus, three simian-type blood group systems could be demonstrated by the four newly developed alloimmune reagents. We use the following nomenclature for these blood groups: the E and F blood groups, each with two phenotypes, antigen positive (E and F) and antigen negative (e and f), and the GH blood group having three phenotypes (G, H, and GH).     

No ethical divide between China and the West in human embryo research

This is a discussion of the reaction to the recent research article publication in the journal Protein & Cell by a group of scientists at Sun Yat‐sen University using the CRISPR/Cas9 technique on editing non‐viable human zygotes. Many commentators condemned the Chinese scientists for overstepping ethical boundaries long accepted in Western countries and accused China of having lax regulations on genomic research in general. We argue that not only did this research follow strict ethical standards and fully comply with current regulations, but China also has a well‐developed regulatory framework governing such research comparable to many developed countries. We see the reactions among Western commentators as a misunderstanding of the current situation and an expression of a lack of willingness to acknowledge China as an equal partner in the international debate about proper limits to the development of new biotechnologies.     

Blood groups as genetic markers in chimpanzees: Their importance for the national chimpanzee breeding program

Severe restrictions on the importation of chimpanzees emphasize the importance and urgency of domestic breeding as a sole means to assure an uninterrupted supply of animals for medical research. An insight into the genetic structure of the self-sustained captive population of animals is indispensable to prevent the effects of inbreeding and to preserve the animals' reproductive capacity. This can be achieved by study of sets of genetic markers in the form of heritable molecular or antigenic variations detectable by relatively simple methods. Among chimpanzee blood components so far identified as possible genetic markers, red cell antigens appear to be the most useful and most readily available. The amount of information concerning blood groups of chimpanzees, their serology and genetics, number of polymorphic types, etc, surpasses data on other heritable traits in this species. A concise review of the present status of knowledge of chimpanzee blood groups and, particularly, of serology and genetics of two complex blood group systems, V-A-B-D and R-C-E-F, is given together with a few examples of their application in cases of disputed parentage. Finally, a list of practical steps is suggested dealing with introduction and use of genetic markers as elements of the national chimpanzee breeding program.     

Current genetic research in cotton in India

Genetic research on cotton in India in recent times is reviewed. Establishment of a gene bank with global accessions of the four cultivated species, as well as wild relatives, has facilitated genetic improvement of cotton in India. Genetic control of the economic traits has been studied by biometrical approaches, particularly the line x tester analysis, diallel cross and generation mean analysis. Both additive and non-additive gene actions have been reported for most of the traits. Heritability estimates are low to high. Studies on G×E interaction and stability parameters indicate availability of lines which are stable in their performance over locations and seasons. Genetic improvement of yield, fibre properties, lint percent, seed oil, earliness and resistance to key pests and diseases has been targeted and considerable success has been achieved. Single cross, three-way cross, multiple cross, back cross, biparental mating, mutation breeding and heterosis breeding are the main procedures employed for improvement of yield. Heterosis breeding has, however, made the most significant contributions in improvement of both yield and fibre quality in recent times. While resistant genotypes have been developed for most of the pests and diseases, resistance against cotton bollworms has not been achieved. Genetic engineering to incorporate the Bt gene in cotton to impart resistance to bollworms is in progress. Keeping in view the increased requirements of cotton in the future, thrust areas in genetic research have been indicated.     

Traveling questions: uncertainty and nonknowledge as vehicles of translation in genetic research participation

In this paper, I argue that uncertainty and nonknowledge, and not just research results, can be important vehicles of translation through which genetic research participation comes to affect the lives of research participants. Based on interviews with participants in a genetic research project, I outline epistemic, emotional, relational and moral implications of research participation. Many of them resemble what the literature has described as the social implications of genetic counseling, but here they stem from interaction with knowledge-in-the-making or what I simply call nonknowledge. While policies aimed at stimulating translation from bench to bedside tend to build on the assumption that research only works when knowledge translates into technological ability and creates utility, I suggest acknowledging that research has implications long before any clinical applications are at hand. Research questions, and not just results, may serve as a generative form of knowledge that can travel as fast as any answer.     

乳山近海大型底栖动物功能摄食类群

根据2006年12月至2007年11月对乳山近海的调查样品,报道了该海域大型底栖动物功能摄食类群的生态学状况.结果表明:乳山近海大型底栖动物以食底泥者和肉食者占较大优势,其次为滤食者,食碎屑者、杂食者、植食者相对丰度较小;食底泥者的优势种为中蚓虫、不倒翁虫、丝异蚓虫和轮双眼钩虾,肉食者的优势种为寡鳃齿吻沙蚕、圆筒原盒螺和纽虫,滤食者的优势种为滑理蛤、菲律宾蛤仔、金星蝶铰蛤和江户明樱蛤;各功能摄食类群分布受有机负荷和底质类型限制;基于大型底栖动物功能类群的生态参数评价结果表明,乳山近海大型底栖动物群落健康状况由虚弱趋于不稳定,大部分站位大型底栖动物群落受到轻度扰动,底栖生态质量状况较优良;冗余分析表明,盐度、水温、总氮、悬浮物、溶解氧、总有机碳和硅酸盐等7个因子与乳山近海大型底栖动物功能摄食类群存在较显著的相关性.     

Blood group antigens and the population genetics of Macaca mulatta on Cayo Santiago. I. Genetic differentiation of social groups

The red blood cell phenotypes for eight polymorphic loci were determined for 293 free-ranging Macaca mulatta living on Cayo Santiago; this number represents the total population of the island, disposed in four social groups plus peripheral males. The rhesus population shows significant genetic heterogeneity over blood group systems (loci) and social groups. No particular genetic locus or social group is solely responsible for the genetic heterogeneity observed. The distributions of genotypes for two loci (G and H) do not deviate significantly from Hardy-Weinberg expectations within social groups or in the population as a whole. Correction of the equilibrium expectations for the effect of population subdivision yields no statistically significant results. Overall, the results suggest that the interaction of a variety of processes (random genetic drift, founder effect, migration and selection) may be responsible for the diversity observed. These data, combined with those from further studies, may allow an application of behavioral and genetic knowledge to the study of microevolutionary processes among nonhuman primates.     

《遗传学》教学中若干问题的数学解析Ⅰ

遗传学教学过程中会发现一系列启发性的问题,涉及孟德尔遗传、连锁遗传和数量遗传等领域,这些问题对许多学生来讲是有趣且有一定难度的。通过收集若干启发性问题,并用数学方法一一进行剖析,以供相关同学和同行借鉴和思考。     

《遗传学》教学中若干问题的数学解析Ⅱ

遗传学教学过程中会发现一系列启发性的问题,涉及孟德尔遗传、数量遗传、群体遗传和人类遗传等领域,这些问题对许多学生来讲有趣且有一定难度。收集了若干启发性问题,包括自交后代各种表型可能出现的频率、多次回交的目的、显性性状是否在群体中占有更大的比例、为什么母亲的年龄与子女的正常与否有很大的关系、遗传力的估算方法等,并用数学方法一一进行剖析,以供相关同学和同行借鉴和思考。     

Caprine blood groups. 2. The C,G, H,I, J,K, L,N, and Q systems

Nine blood group systems of goats were identified using 12 caprine reagents produced by absorption of alloimmune antisera. The caprine C blood group system, possibly homologous to the ovine C blood group system, was characterized by two reagents and shown to be controlled by three alleles,C ¹²,C ²⁵, andC ⁻. A more complex blood group system of goats, designated G, was identified using three reagents and shown to be controlled by six codominant alleles (G ^10.19.20,G ^10.19,G ^10.20,G ¹⁰,G ¹⁹,G ²⁰) and a recessive allele (G ⁻). A further seven one-factor two-allelic systems were identified by seven reagents. The nine genetic systems provided exclusion probabilities of 0.479, 0.492, 0.548, and 0.572 in Australian Angora, Dairy, Cashmere, and Texan Angora goat breeds, respectively. This work was supported by a grant from the Australian Stud Book, Alison Road, Randwick, New South Wales 2031, Australia.     

白蜡虫碱性磷酸酶功能基团的研究

白蜡ricerus pela雌成虫经匀浆,正丁醇抽提,硫酸铵分段盐析,SephadexG-150凝胶过滤等步骤,得到比活力为136.65U/mg蛋白酶制品,用苯甲基磺酰氟、N-溴代琥珀酰亚胺、三硝基苯磺酸、二巯基苏糖醇、对氯汞苯甲酸、琥珀酸酐、溴乙酸、碘乙酸等化学修饰剂在一定条件下选择修饰白蜡虫碱性磷酸酶的几种氨基酸残基,并测定酶活力变化。结果表明：苯甲基磺酰氟、N-溴代琥珀酰亚胺、三硝基苯磺酸、琥珀酸酐、二巯基苏糖醇的修饰能显著抑制酶的活力,活力的降低与修饰剂的浓度有关,氯汞苯甲酸、溴乙酸、碘乙酸的修饰对酶的抑制作用影响较小。初步认为：丝氨酸、赖氨酸和色氨酸残基是白蜡虫碱性磷酸酶的必需功能基团,部分二硫键也是酶的催化功能所必需的。     

The genetic relationship among Iranian ethnic groups: an anthropological view based on HLA class II gene polymorphism

Highly polymorphic human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes are considered as useful markers by molecular anthropologists to determine genetic relationship among populations. This review summarizes the results of molecular analyses of HLA class II gene polymorphism in 816 DNA samples from 11 Iranian ethnic groups. The genetic relationship of Iranians to Asians and Europeans has also been reported here. The results of this study revealed a close genetic relationship among Iranian subpopulations which were well separated from other Asian and European populations, however, a genetic similarity was observed among Iranians, Macedonians, Greeks, and Italians.     

A comparison of four methods for detecting weak genetic structure from marker data

Genetic structure is ubiquitous in wild populations and is the result of the processes of natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. Genetic drift and divergent selection promotes the generation of genetic structure, while gene flow homogenizes the subpopulations. The ability to detect genetic structure from marker data diminishes rapidly with a decreasing level of differentiation among subpopulations. Weak genetic structure may be unimportant over evolutionary time scales but could have important implications in ecology and conservation biology. In this paper we examine methods for detecting and quantifying weak genetic structures using simulated data. We simulated populations consisting of two putative subpopulations evolving for up to 50 generations with varying degrees of gene flow (migration), and varying amounts of information (allelic diversity). There are a number of techniques available to detect and quantify genetic structure but here we concentrate on four methods: F(ST), population assignment, relatedness, and sibship assignment. Under the simple mating system simulated here, the four methods produce qualitatively similar results. However, the assignment method performed relatively poorly when genetic structure was weak and we therefore caution against using this method when the analytical aim is to detect fine-scale patterns. Further work should examine situations with different mating systems, for example where a few individuals dominate reproductive output of the population. This study will help workers to design their experiments (e.g., sample sizes of markers and individuals), and to decide which methods are likely to be most appropriate for their particular data.