The influence of coastal topography, circulation patterns, and rafting in structuring populations of an intertidal alga

Understanding the dispersal processes that influence genetic structure in marine species requires estimating gene flow in a dynamic, fluid environment that is often poorly characterized at scales relevant to multiple dispersive stages (e.g. spores, gametes, zygotes, larvae, adults). We examine genetic structure in the marine alga Fucus vesiculosus L., which inhabits moderately exposed shores in the northern Atlantic but releases gametes only under sunny, calm conditions. We predicted genetic structure would correlate with coastal topography because weather frequently varies across coastal promontories on the Maine shore when F. vesiculosus is reproductive, which causes one side to experience high levels of water motion (= no gamete release) while one side is calm (= gamete release). Furthermore, we expected that the effect of low dispersal capacities of gametes and zygotes would result in spatial genetic structure over short distances. Using surface drifters, we characterized near-shore circulation patterns around the study sites to investigate whether directionality of gene flow was correlated with directionality of currents. We found significant genetic differentiation among sites sampled at two different peninsulas, but patterns of differentiation were unrelated to coastal topography and there was no within-site spatial structuring. Our genetic and near-shore circulation data, combined with an examination of gamete longevity, support the dependency of gene flow on storm-detached, rafting, reproductive adults. This study highlights the significance of rafting as a mechanism for structuring established populations of macroalgae and associated biota and demonstrates the importance of coupling population genetics' research with relevant hydrodynamic studies.     

The analysis of planktonic rotifer populations: A plea for long-term investigations

Short-term species succession, and long-term community development, of planktonic rotifer populations of the temperate zone and factors influencing species' abundance (ie., physical and chemical limitations, food and exploitative competition, mechanical interference competition, predation, parasitism) are described and discussed. The long-term development of plankton communities in three European lakes is described and the major events are discussed in relation to ecological interactions. Frequently, the shortcomings of our knowledge about population ecology and ecophysiology of rotifers prevent explanations of short-term and, especially, of long-term developments of these plankton organisms. The need for qualitative and quantitative observations in the field and in the laboratory over long periods becomes obvious.     

Relative importance of temporal and spatial heterogeneity in the zooplankton community of an artificial reservoir

Zooplankton samples were collected monthly at three stations in Ogochi Reservoir during 1980, and the temporal and horizontal variations in the density of dominant taxa were evaluated by a standard 2-way ANOVA with random effects. The analysis revealed that horizontal is greater than temporal variation in the warm water season (> 18 °C), whereas temporal variation is greater in the cold water season (< 18 °C). Horizontal heterogeneity of the zooplankton community found in the warm water season seems to be associated with differences in site-specific conditions.     

An experimental model for the spatial structuring and selection of bacterial communities

Community-level selection is an important concept in evolutionary biology and has been predicted to arise in systems that are spatially structured. Here we develop an experimental model for spatially-structured bacterial communities based on coaggregating strains and test their relative fitness under a defined selection pressure. As selection we apply protozoan grazing in a defined, continuous culturing system. We demonstrate that a slow-growing bacterial strain Blastomonas natatoria 2.1, which forms coaggregates with Micrococcus luteus, can outcompete a fast-growing, closely related strain Blastomonas natatoria 2.8 under conditions of protozoan grazing. The competitive benefit provided by spatial structuring has implications for the evolution of natural bacterial communities in the environment.     

Comparative power law analysis for the spatial heterogeneity scaling of the hot‐spring microbiomes

Spatial heterogeneity is a fundamental property of any natural ecosystems, including hot spring and human microbiomes. Two important scales that spatial heterogeneity exhibits are population and community scales, and Taylor's power law (PL) and its extensions (PLEs) offer ideal quantitative models to assess population‐ and community‐level heterogeneities. Here we analyse 165 hot spring microbiome samples at the global scale that cover a wide range of temperatures (7.5–99°C) and pH levels (3.3–9). We explore a question of fundamental importance for measuring the spatial heterogeneity of the hot‐spring microbiome and further discuss their ecological implications: How do critical environmental factors such as temperature and pH influence the scaling of community spatial heterogeneity? We are particularly interested in the existence of a universal scaling model that is independent of environmental gradients. By applying PL and PLEs, we were able to obtain such scaling parameters of the hot spring at both community and population levels, which are temperature‐ and pH‐invariant. These findings suggest that while the hot‐spring microbiomes located at different regions may have different environmental conditions, they share a fundamental heterogeneity scaling parameter, analogically similar to the gravitational acceleration on Earth, which may vary slightly depending on altitude and latitude, but is invariant overall. In contrast, similar to the physics of the Moon and Earth, which have different gravitational accelerations, the hot spring and human microbiomes can have different scaling parameters as demonstrated in this study.     

基于地统计学的退化草地狼毒种群土壤种子库空间异质性

土壤种子库作为植被天然更新的物质基础,其空间异质性对于认识种群繁殖更新机制具有重要意义。利用野外调查和地统计学方法,设置4个草地退化梯度,研究了祁连山北坡狼毒种群土壤种子库空间异质性及其与地上植被的关系。结果表明:4个退化梯度草地土壤种子库的半变异函数模型均为非线性模型,表现为聚集分布;随着天然草地退化程度加剧,狼毒种群土壤种子库的密度与变程不断增大、基台值与结构比呈"U"型变化趋势,其中76.88%~93.75%的空间异质性是由空间自相关引起;在未退化和重度退化草地地上植被密度与土壤种子库密度呈正相关,在轻度和中度退化草地中地上植被密度与土壤种子库密度之间未呈现相关性。在草地退化演替过程中,土壤种子库空间分布主要受地上植被等结构性因素影响,而放牧等干扰因素也在一定程度上降低了空间自相关性。     

北京东灵山优势种群树木死亡对空间格局与生境的影响

森林群落动态及其与环境因子关系研究一直是生态学的重要研究内容之一,树木死亡是森林群落动态的重要环节,环境因子是树木死亡的重要影响因素,因此,开展对树木死亡及其与环境相关性研究对分析森林群落动态至关重要。以东灵山暖温带落叶阔叶次生林20 hm~2动态监测样地为研究对象,对样地优势种群树木死亡前后(死亡前:活立木;死亡后,枯立木、倒木)种群数量特征、空间分布及生境相关性的变化关系进行研究,运用点格局、物种-生境相关性分析等方法对数据进行分析。结果:(1)树木死亡前,多度排序为辽东栎黑桦山杨华北落叶松;树木死亡后,多度排序为山杨黑桦辽东栎华北落叶松;树木死亡前后,随取样尺度增大,分布模式均由聚集向随机过渡。(2)种群与生境关联性分析表明:山杨、黑桦、华北落叶松活立木随机分布,辽东栎聚集于缓坡;山杨、辽东栎枯立木缓坡分布较多,黑桦随机,华北落叶松集中于山脊;山杨、黑桦倒木陡坡较多,辽东栎集中于山脊。(3)不同种群死亡前后的空间格局有明显的尺度依赖性,同时与物种自身生物学特性、密度制约、生境过滤的过程相关。     

湖泊生态环境损害基线判定技术综述

近年来,污染事故引发的湖泊生态环境损害问题屡见不鲜,特别是氮磷营养盐富集导致的湖泊富营养化。因此,对湖泊生态环境损害程度进行科学合理评判,制定湖泊生态环境损害判定规范程序,形成湖泊生态环境损害判定技术势在必行。目前,国内外学者一致认为,确定切实合理的生态环境基线是对生态环境损害进行科学有效评估的关键技术环节和重要前提。基于相关国家标准以及文献调研,对湖泊生态环境基线判定的原则、判定程序以及判定方法进行系统梳理与总结。详细介绍了针对湖泊不同受体的模型推算法在生态环境损害基线判定中的应用,包括相应的判定方法、判定过程以及优缺点。此外,还针对国内外典型湖泊生态环境损害基线判定研究实例进行阐述。最后对湖泊生态环境基线判定工作的未来发展方向进行了展望,以期为形成统一、合理、有效且具有高度普适性的湖泊生态环境基线制定方法与流程提供依据。     

Habitat selection of breeding riparian birds in an urban environment: untangling the relative importance of biophysical elements and spatial scale

Aim Urbanization is a leading threat to global biodiversity, yet little is known about how the spatial arrangement and composition of biophysical elements – buildings and vegetation – within a metropolitan area influence habitat selection. Here, we ask: what is the relative importance of the structure and composition of these elements on bird species across multiple spatial scales? Location The temperate metropolitan area of Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. Methods We surveyed breeding birds on 71 plots along an urban gradient. We modelled relative density for 48 bird species in relation to local woody vegetation composition and structure and to tree cover, grass cover and building density within 50–1000 m of each plot. We used an information‐theoretic approach to compare models and variables. Results At the proximate scale, native tree and understory stem frequency were the most important vegetation variables explaining bird distributions. Species’ responses to landscape biophysical features and spatial scales varied. Most native species responded positively to vegetation measures and negatively to building density. Models combining both local vegetation and landscape information represented best or competitive models for the majority of species, while models containing only local vegetation characteristics were rarely competitive. Smaller spatial scales (≤ 500 m) were most important for 36 species, and eight species had best models at larger scales (> 500 m); however, several species had competitive models across multiple scales. Main conclusions Habitat selection by birds within the urban matrix is the result of a combination of factors operating at both proximate and broader spatial scales. Efforts to manage and design urban areas to benefit native birds require both fine‐scale (e.g., individual landowners and landscape design) and larger landscape actions (e.g., regional comprehensive planning).     

The relative importance of substratum characteristics and recruitment in determining the spatial distribution of the fiddler crab Uca uruguayensis Nobili

The roles of sediment characteristics and the pattern of recruitment in influencing the abundance of the fiddler crab Uca uruguayensis on Argentinean mudflats were evaluated. The density of adult crabs showed a patchy distribution related to the sediment thickness (depth at which a layer of fossil shells are buried), but the density of juvenile crabs was not coupled with the density of adult crabs. In a field experiment, fossil shells were removed and the density of crabs significantly increased, which demonstrates that the presence of the layer of shells is a structure that may hinder the establishment of burrows. The density of crabs was related to sediment thickness, sediment torque and organic matter content. The importance of each of these variables was different for adult and juvenile crabs, indicating that the distribution of adult crabs may be caused by mechanisms affecting adult crabs themselves and is not established by the recruitment pattern. Moreover, in a field experiment, the density of juveniles decreased when adult crabs were added, and increased when adult crabs were removed.The morphology of burrows was related to sediment characteristics. Burrows were deeper, longer and more voluminous when sediment thickness was high. The volume of burrows decreased with increasing sediment torque. These results suggest that the morphology of burrows is related to the space available and the ease with which sediment it can be excavated. However, an important amount of variability remained unexplained, suggesting the presence of additional environmental variables or behavioural plasticity not considered by this study. Together, these results demonstrate that the spatial heterogeneity in the environmental factors can be translated to a spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of fiddler crabs.     

Contrasting alien and native plant species–area relationships: the importance of spatial grain and extent

Aim The proportion of alien plant species in floras is increasingly being used to indicate the threat of invasions to native species and/or the homogenization of biodiversity. However, this indicator is only valuable if it is independent of the spatial extent and grain of observation. This study tested the equivalence of native and alien species–area relationships (SARs) in order to assess the support for scale invariance in the proportion of alien species in floras. Location England, UK. Methods Nested SARs were generated by assessing the richness of native and alien plant species drawn from the New atlas of the British and Irish flora for six areas comprising 100, 400, 900, 1600, 2500 and 3600 km² with each larger area containing all smaller areas. Five replicate sets of nested areas encompassing northern, southern, eastern, western and central regions were chosen. For each set of nested areas, the log‐transformed species richness was regressed on log‐transformed area to fit a power function to the SAR. Results Native and alien plant SARs reveal consistent differences in slope, highlighting that the proportion of alien species is a function of spatial grain. Aliens are more rare than natives and have higher spatial turnover leading to faster accumulation of species as area increases. However, equivalent samples drawn from a larger spatial extent reveal similar alien and native SARs. Main conclusions The significant differential scale dependence in native and alien species richness observed in this study reflects dissimilar influences of regional drivers such as habitat, but potentially also propagule pressure and introduction history, that leads to the relative rarity and high spatial turnover of alien species. Maps of invasion hotspots that identify areas where the proportion of the alien flora is particularly high should therefore be treated with considerable caution since patterns across most grains used for species monitoring will be scale dependent.     

Colony expansion model for describing the spatial distribution of populations

Two equations have been used frequently to describe the relation between the sample variance (s ²) and sample mean (m) of the number of individuals per quadrat: Taylor's power law, s ² = am ^b , and Iwao's m ^*−m regression, s ² = cm + dm ², where a, b, c, and d are constants. We can obtain biological information such as colony size and the degree of aggregation of colonies from parameters c and d of Iwao's m ^*−m regression. However, we cannot obtain such biological information from parameters a and b of Taylor's power law because these parameters have not been described by simple functions. To mitigate such in-convenience, I propose a mechanistic model that produces Taylor's power law; this model is called the colony expansion model. This model has the following two assumptions: (1) a population consists of a fixed number of colonies that lie across several quadrats, and (2) the number of individuals per unit occupied area of colony becomes v times larger in an allometric manner when the occupied area of colony becomes h times larger (v≥ 1, h≥ 1). The parameter h indicates the dispersal rate of organisms. We then obtain Taylor's power law with b = {ln[E(h)] + ln[E(v ²)]}/{ln[E(h)] + ln[E(v)]}, where E indicates the expectation. We can use the inverse of the exponent, 1/b, as an index of dispersal of individuals because it increases with increasing E(h). This model also yields a relation, known as the Kono–Sugino relation, between the proportion of occupied quadrats and the mean density per quadrat: −ln(1 −p) = fm ^g , where p is the proportion of occupied quadrats, f is a constant, and g = ln[E(h)]/{ln[E(h)] + ln[E(v)]}. We can use g as an index of dispersal as it increases with increasing E(h). The problem at low densities where Taylor's power law is not applicable is also discussed. Received: January 27, 2000 / Accepted: June 20, 2000     

Microsatellite analysis of the Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni (Diptera: Tephritidae) indicates spatial structuring: implications for population control

The population structure of a tephritid pest species, the Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt), has been analysed over a five year period (1994-1998), using six microsatellites. Adult fly samples were collected to cover most regions of eastern and central Australia where the flies are regularly found. Tests for heterogeneity indicated that flies within geographically defined regions were homogeneous. The samples were allocated into five regions, including one very large region, Queensland, which encompasses that portion of the fly's range where breeding can occur year-round. With one exception, the collections from different regions were homogeneous between years, showing a fairly static distribution of the species. However, differences between regions were highly significant. The one case of a change in frequency between years indicated a gradual replacement of flies in a marginal region by flies from the main part of the range. The finding of stability in the distribution of a highly mobile insect is of interest, potentially also for other species which have expanded beyond their native range. It is argued that a contributing reason for this stability may be adaptation to different climatic regimes, and that strategies for control based on this hypothesis afford a reasonable chance of success.     

Iterative kriging for removing spatial autocorrelation in analysis of forest genetic trials

Conventional analysis of spatially correlated data in inadequately blocked field genetic trials may give erroneous results that would seriously affect breeding decisions. Forest genetic trials are commonly very large and strongly heterogeneous, so adjustments for micro-environmental heterogeneity become indispensable. This study explores the use of geostatistics to account for the spatial autocorrelation in four Pinus pinaster Ait. progeny trials established on hilly and irregular terrains with a randomized complete block design and large blocks. Data of five different traits assessed at age 8 were adjusted using an iterative method based on semivariograms and kriging, and the effects on estimates of variance components, heritability, and family effects were evaluated in relation to conventional analysis. Almost all studied traits showed nonrandom spatial structures. Therefore, after the adjustments for spatial autocorrelation, the block and family × block variance components, which were extremely high in the conventional analysis, almost disappeared. The reduction of the interaction variance was recovered by the family variance component, resulting in higher heritability estimates. The removal of the spatial autocorrelation also affected the estimation of family effects, resulting in important changes in family ranks after the spatial adjustments. Comparison among families was also greatly improved due to higher accuracy of the family effect estimations. The analysis improvement was larger for growth traits, which showed the strongest spatial heterogeneity, but was also evident for other traits such as straightness or number of whorls. The present paper demonstrates how spatial autocorrelation can drastically affect the analysis of forest genetic trials with large blocks. The iterative kriging procedure presented in this paper is a promising tool to account for this spatial heterogeneity.     

An exact procedure for the analysis of heterogeneous kinetics in polyclonal antibody populations

Antibody populations with heterogeneous binding properties exhibit complex first-order dissociation kinetics. An analytical method has been developed to determine the average dissociation rate constant and the heterogeneity index of a specific antibody population. This procedure was based on Laplace transformation of the gamma distribution function, which yielded an exact, macroscopic rate law for the entire antibody population. Linearization of the macroscopic rate law is achieved by plotting data points versus their numerical derivatives using log-log axes. Linear regression of such plots yields the average dissociation rate constant from the Y-intercept, and heterogeneity index from the slope. This analytic method is transparent to the antibody system and kinetic assay employed, requiring only a programmable calculator to perform the necessary calculations. The usefulness of this analytic method was demonstrated by the evaluation of dissociation kinetics in murine monoclonal and rabbit polyclonal anti-fluorescyl-IgG antibody populations.     

Two fitness measures for clonal plants and the importance of spatial aspects

The capability of clonal plants to reproduce both sexually and vegetatively and their resulting hierarchical organisation into ramets and genets pose problems for the determination of fitness. We develop ramet-based measures of clonal plant fitness including both modes of reproduction. To this end we use simple population-dynamic equations accounting for limited space, limited dispersal, and disturbance. Neglecting interactions among ramets (r-selection regime) we derive an expression for initial growth rate r as a fitness measure. At higher densities interactions among ramets lead to density control (K-selection regime) and competitive exclusion of genotypes or species may occur. In this case we apply an invasibility criterion to derive an abundance fitness measure: competitiveness C. The optimum of C corresponds to an evolutionary stable strategy. C increases with the proportion of reproductive adults, with inverse module mortality, and with the sum of sexual and vegetative reproduction. The latter are defined as the product of the rate of module production and two correction factors accounting for juvenile mortality before establishment and for the efficiency of space exploitation by propagules. Thus C is equivalent to potential life-time offspring production, in contrast to realized life-time offspring production R₀. Because the correction factor for space exploitation cannot be expressed analytically we obtain it from complementary spatially-explicit individual-based simulations. To illustrate an application of the fitness measure C we predict optimal allocation to vegetative and sexual reproduction. In a homogeneous habitat an intermediate allocation may maximize fitness only if there is a non-linear trade-off between the modes of reproduction. However even if this trade-off is linear, spatially heterogenous disturbances can lead to an intermediate optimum of allocation because seed dispersal with subsequent vegetative spread improves the utilization of available space for recruitment if the spatial extent of single disturbances is much larger than the distance of vegetative dispersal. Thus, our study underlines the importance of spatial features for fitness measures especially of clonal plants.     

Quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution of ultrastructural differentiation markers during development ofDictyostelium discoideum

Summary The appearance and spatial distrubution of ultrastructural markers ofDictyostelium discoideum differentiation were quantitatively analysed. Our results combined with data from the literature on the functions of cells at various stages of development lead to the following conclusions. When food is no longer available all amoebae initially develop an autophagic apparatus in order to sustain metabolism. After slugs have been formed, autophagy is suppressed in the prespore cells. During aggregation a number of cells gradually form prespore characteristics. These cells arise at random but later they become located in the basal part of the tip-forming aggregate. From the early slug stage onwards, cells of the posterior two third region gradually enter into the prespore pathway. During prolonged slug migration the optimal acquirement of prespore characteristics is blocked. Cells of the anterior region show no active differentiation but they maintain the morphology and most of the functions of aggregating cells. At the rear-guard of the slug and later on in the basal region of the maturing fruiting body, a second anteriorlike region appears. Actual stalk cell differentiation takes place only at the apex and at the base of the developing fruiting body.     

The importance of control populations for the identification and management of genetic diversity

A fundamental criterion for recognizing species or populations as potentially endangered is the presence/absence of genetic diversity. However, the lack of control populations in many studies of natural systems deprives one from unambiguous criteria for evaluating the genetic effects of small population size and its potential effects on fitness. In this study, I present an example of how the lack of adequate controls may lead to erroneous conclusions for understanding the role that population size may play in the preservation of genetic diversity and fitness of natural populations. The genetic analysis of a population of greater prairie chickens from Illinois, USA, between two time periods (1974–1987 and 1988–1993) in which the studied population experienced a substantial reduction in size and fitness showed no apparent associations between population size and genetic diversity. However, genetic analysis of museum specimens from early this century indicated that Illinois prairie chickens had originally higher levels of genetic diversity, which suggest the Illinois population was already bottlenecked by the 1970s. This study emphasizes the importance of using historical controls to evaluate the temporal dynamics of genetic variability in natural populations. The large number of museum collections worldwide may provide a valuable source of genetic information from past populations, particularly in species currently endangered as a result of human activities. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.