Areas of endemism and spatial diversification of the Muscidae (Insecta: Diptera) in the Andean and Neotropical regions

Aim We present a biogeographical analysis of the areas of endemism and areas of diversification in the Muscidae. This analysis searched for geographical patterns in the Muscidae to reconstruct elements of the evolutionary biogeographical history of this insect family. Location Andean and Neotropical regions. Method We constructed a geographic database of 728 species from the literature and museum specimens. Areas of endemism were established by parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) based on grids of two different sizes: 5° (550 × 550 km) and 2° (220 × 220 km). Areas of diversification were delimited by track analysis that also included phylogenetic information. This process was independently applied to 11 genera. For each genus, we plotted generalized tracks generated by sister species on a map. When these generalized tracks supported inter‐generic nodes they were manually contoured and inferred to be areas of diversification for the Muscidae. Results Thirteen endemic areas were found using the 5° grid, and eight endemic areas resulted from the 2° grid. Ten areas were in agreement with previous studies, and 11 were new. Amazonian and Atlantic areas of diversification agreed with previous areas for the genus Polietina, and new areas of diversification were found in Panama and in central Chile. Main conclusions Six spatial patterns in the Muscidae were identified: (1) areas of endemism in both Pampa and Puna provinces were established with species whose distributions had not previously been analysed; (2) a new area of endemism was established in extreme southern South America, in Tierra del Fuego; (3) two new areas of diversification, which include Panama and central Chile, were identified; (4) a spatial association was identified between the separation of Chiloe Island from the continent and the diversification in Andean species; (5) a north–south track axis and latitudinal node intervals were identified, interpreted as spatial responses to glaciation or glacial retreat in the Andes; and (6) a spatial coincidence of areas of endemism, of diversification and high species richness in the Muscidae was discovered. The analysis of a complete database and the recognition of areas of diversification are extremely important in elucidating novel biogeographical patterns, which will in turn contribute to a better understanding of the geographical patterns of evolution in the Muscidae.     

Historical biogeographical patterns of the species of Bursera (Burseraceae) and their taxonomic implications

Aim The plant genus Bursera, with 104 species of trees and shrubs, has been used as a model for biogeographical analyses because of its high species richness and large number of endemic species. The biogeographical patterns of Bursera and their implications for its phylogenetic classification are reviewed in order that some hypotheses on the historical biogeography of tropical Mexico can be proposed. Location Bursera is found in the south‐western USA, most of Mexico, mainly below 1700 m elevation in tropical forests, with some species in xeric shrublands, diversifying along the Pacific slope, Central America, and north‐western South America. A few species occur on the Galapagos and Revillagigedo archipelagos, some of which are endemics, whereas in the Antilles species are distributed extensively, with several endemics in the Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola. Methods Data from specimens in herbaria and the literature were used to construct a matrix of 104 species in 160 areas. Distributional patterns of the species of Bursera were inferred applying track analysis, parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE), and Brooks parsimony analysis (BPA). Results Track analysis revealed four individual tracks: (1) a circum‐Caribbean track, comprising species of the Bursera simaruba species group; (2) an Antillean track, including species that have been transferred to Commiphora based on their pollen traits; (3) a Mexican Pacific track, including species of the B. fragilis, B. microphylla, and B. fagaroides species groups, called ‘cuajiotes’; and (4) a Neotropical Pacific track, including the two species groups assigned to section Bullockia, in which the individual track of the Bursera copallifera species group is nested within the track of the B. glabrifolia species group. The four tracks overlap in a node in the Mexican Pacific slope, where they are highly diversified. PAE allowed us to identify 22 areas of endemism: 12 in Mexico (11 along the Mexican Pacific slope), six in the Antilles, two in Central America, one in South America, and one in the Galapagos. The general area cladogram obtained by BPA has two main clades: one includes the greater Antilles; and the other, 12 Mexican areas of endemism. Main conclusions Bursera fragilis, B. microphylla, and B. fagaroides species groups can be treated together as a new section within Bursera, sect. Quaxiotea, because they are segregated from the other groups of sect. Bursera based on morphological, anatomical, molecular and geographical evidence.     

Biogeographic regions of North American mammals based on endemism

Since the 19th Century, two regions have been recognized for North American mammals, which overlap in Mexico. The Nearctic region corresponds to the northern areas and the Neotropical region corresponds to the southern ones. There are no recent regionalizations for these regions under the criterion of endemism. In the present study, we integrate two methods to regionalize North America, using species distribution models of mammals: endemicity analysis (EA) and parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE). EA was used to obtain areas of endemism and PAE was used to hierarchize them. We found 76 consensus areas from 329 sets classified in 146 cladograms, and the strict consensus cladogram shows a basal polytomy with 14 areas and 16 clades. The final regionalization recognizes two regions (Nearctic and Neotropical) and a transition zone (Mexican Transition Zone), six subregions (Canadian, Alleghanian, Californian‐Rocky Mountain, Pacific Central America, Mexican Gulf‐Central America, and Central America), two dominions (Californian and Rocky Mountain), and 23 provinces. Our analysis show that North America is probably more complex than previously assumed. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 110 , 485–499.     

Vicariance and endemism in a Neotropical savanna hotspot: distribution patterns of Cerrado squamate reptiles

Aim To test predictions of the vicariance model, to define basic biogeographical units for Cerrado squamates, and to discuss previous biogeographical hypotheses. Location Cerrado; South American savannas south of the Amazon, extending across central Brazil, with marginal areas in Bolivia and Paraguay and isolated relictual enclaves in adjacent regions. Methods We compiled species occurrence records via field sampling and revision of museum specimens and taxonomic literature. All species were mapped according to georeferenced locality records, and classified as (1) endemic or non‐endemic, (2) typical of plateaus or depressions, and (3) typical of open or forested habitats. We tested predictions of the vicariance model using biotic element analysis, searching for non‐random clusters of species ranges. Spatial congruence of biotic elements was compared with putative areas of endemism revealed by sympatric restricted‐range species. Effects of topographical and vegetational mosaics on distribution patterns were studied according to species composition in biotic elements and areas of endemism. Results We recorded 267 Cerrado squamates, of which 103 (39%) are endemics, including 20 amphisbaenians (61% endemism), 32 lizards (42%) and 51 snakes (32%). Distribution patterns corroborated predictions of the vicariance model, revealing groups of species with significantly clustered ranges. An analysis of endemic species recovered seven biotic elements, corroborating results including non‐endemics. Sympatric restricted‐range taxa delimited 10 putative areas of endemism, largely coincident with core areas of biotic elements detected with endemic taxa. Distribution patterns were associated with major topographical and vegetational divisions of the Cerrado. Endemism prevailed in open, elevated plateaus, whereas faunal interchange, mostly associated with forest habitats, was more common in peripheral depressions. Main conclusions Our results indicate that vicariant speciation has strongly shaped Cerrado squamate diversity, in contrast to earlier studies emphasizing faunal interchange and low endemism in the Cerrado vertebrate fauna. Levels of squamate endemism are higher than in any other Cerrado vertebrate group. The high number of recovered endemics revealed previously undetected areas of evolutionary relevance, indicating that biogeographical patterns in the Cerrado were poorly represented in previous analyses. Although still largely undocumented, effects of vicariant speciation may be prevalent in a large fraction of Cerrado and Neotropical biodiversity.     

Areas of endemism of Mexican mammals: reanalysis applying the optimality criterion

In order to test Mexican areas of endemism of mammals identified by previous parsimony analyses of endemicity (PAEs), we applied the optimality criterion to three data matrices (based on point records, potential distributional models and the fill option in software NDM). We modelled the ecological niches of 429 terrestrial mammal species using the genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction (GARP) and models were projected as potential distributional areas. We overlapped the point occurrence data and the individual maps of potential distributions to a grid of 1° latitude–longitude. Three matrices of 247 grid cells (areas) and 429 species were built: (1) a binary matrix with '0' for absence and '1' for presence of at least one record of the species inside the grid-cell; (2) a three-state matrix similar to (1) but assigning the state '2' to the assumed presence in the model of potential distribution; and (3) a three-state matrix similar to (2), but applying the fill option of software NDM instead of using a model. The optimality criterion was performed in NDM version 2.7 and results were examined with VNDM version 2.7. The first and second matrices showed 13 areas of endemism and the third identified 16 areas of endemism. NDM provided a better resolution than PAE, allowing us to identify several new areas of endemism, previously undetected. Ecological niche models, projected as potential distributional areas, and the optimality criterion are very useful to identify areas of endemism, although they should be used with caution because they may overpredict potential distributional areas. PAE seems to underestimate the areas of endemism identified.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 98 , 468–478.     

Floristic Geography of Piper (Piperaceae) in China

Piper is the largest genus and important Pantropical components of the Piperaceae family with approximately 1000-2000 species in the world. China is in the northern verge of its natural distribution. In this study, floristic geography of the Piper genus in China was analyzed to reveal its botanical characteristic, origins of speciation and its dispersal channels. The study results showed Yunnan province is one of the very important distribution regions for Piper species, served as the center of the Piper species dispersal toward to the eastern and northern regions of China with gradually reduced species numbers. The similarity level appeared to be low for its species among different provinces, and the Piper distribution regions could be approximately clustered into three clades: tropical clade, subtropical clade and Taiwan clade. Cladistically, Piper species found in China have the highest proportions which were endemic to China, and then followed by Piper species distributed in Tropical Asia, only few species belonged to Pantropical and East Asia areal types. The floristic geography of Piper genus in China is related to that of Indo Chinese Peninsula, Java Islands and Indian Peninsula in some degrees, but not closely related. This study revealed Yunnan province is one of the central of origins for the Piper species, and or one of the central of regions for its species diversification, and the Piper species of Taiwan mainly came from Philippine islands and further diversified into Taiwan clade. Our study results presented a useful method for the systematic studying of Piper genus taxonomy and the evolution of Piper speciation.     

Distribution patterns of the genus Pacifigorgia (Octocorallia: Gorgoniidae): track compatibility analysis and parsimony analysis of endemicity

Aim We analysed the distribution patterns of the eastern Pacific octocoral genus Pacifigorgia and deduced its ancestral distribution to determine why Pacifigorgia is absent from the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean of central America, and the Antilles. We also examined the current patterns of endemism for Pacifigorgia to look for congruence between hot spots of endemism in the genus and generally recognized areas of endemism for the eastern Pacific. Location The tropical eastern Pacific and western Atlantic, America. Methods We used track compatibility analysis (TCA) and parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) to derive ancestral distribution patterns and hot spots of endemism, respectively. Distributional data for Pacifigorgia were gathered from several museum collections and from fieldwork, particularly in the Pacific of Costa Rica and Panama. Results A single generalized track joined the three main continental eastern Pacific biogeographical provinces and the western Atlantic. This track can be included within a larger eastern Atlantic–eastern Pacific transoceanic track that may be the oldest transoceanic track occurring in the region. PAE results designate previously recognized eastern Pacific biogeographical provinces as Pacifigorgia hot spots of endemism. The number of endemic species, which for other taxonomic groups is similar among the eastern Pacific provinces, is higher in the Panamic province for Pacifigorgia. Main conclusions We propose that the absence of Pacifigorgia from the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean of central America, and the Antilles is the result of an ancient absence of the genus from these areas rather than the consequence of a major, recent, extinction episode. The Cortez province and the Mexican province appear together as a result of either non‐response to vicariance or dispersal across the Sinaloan Gap. We posit that the Central American Gap acts as a barrier that separates the Panamic province from the northern Cortez–Mexican province.     

Areas of endemism of the Patagonian steppe: an approach based on insect distributional patterns using endemicity analysis

Aims  To delimit areas of endemism in the Patagonian steppe using endemicity analysis (EA), which evaluates areas of endemism by means of an endemicity index, and to compare the resulting endemic areas with those proposed for the Patagonian steppe by previous authors.
Location  The Patagonian steppe, a region of South America found approximately below parallel 36° S to the east of the Andes Mountains.
Methods  Distributional data for 159 species of insects collected in the Patagonian steppe, and consisting of 1317 georeferenced samples were used to identify areas of endemism. A data grid of presence and absence (with cells of 1° × 1°) was constructed. Initially, two different types of EA were performed, seeking areas defined by 'four or more' species. A first analysis was performed without taking into consideration those quadrats where no species had been recorded (empty quadrats), which in many cases meant a discontinuous distribution. The second analysis was performed assuming a continuous distribution for each species. A third analysis, assuming continuous distributions, was performed using 'three or more' as the number of species necessary for an area to be identified as an endemic area.
Results  In the first two analyses, EA recognized the same five areas of endemism: western Patagonia, south-western Payunia, northern Suabandean, southern Subandean and Austral Patagonia. The results of the third analysis allowed the identification of three more areas of endemism: northern Payunia, Chubutian and Santacrucian.
Main conclusions  We identified five areas of endemism for the Patagonian steppe, some of which have been defined in previous contributions. These areas are: Western Patagonia, Payunia and Subandean Patagonia (which can be divided into septentrional and meridional), Central Patagonia (Chubutence and Santacrucense) and Austral Patagonia.     

Distributional patterns of the Neotropical humid montane forest avifaunas

The study of biogeographical patterns of the Neotropical humid montane forest avifauna has been prevented due to the lack of phylogenetic hypotheses for most taxa, and to the paucity of detailed studies about the geographical distribution for most of the species. Distributional patterns of this avifauna were explored by integrating predictive distributional models and Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity (PAE). Distributional maps were generated using the Genetic Algorithms for Rule Set Prediction for 442 species; this information was transformed into a data matrix for analysis with PAE. Hierarchical information corresponding to the genus level was incorporated to help resolve the relationships between areas. A strict consensus cladogram showed a clear separation between the Mesoamerican and South American avifaunas. Within the Mesoamerican clade, three geographically structured groups were obtained, whereas the South American clade showed a polytomy of three groups, with two of them, the South Andean Yungas and the Tepuis, located outside the main clade. The third group is a well resolved clade, including areas from eastern Panama and northern Venezuela to central Bolivia. Area relationships suggest a mixed history of dispersal and vicariant events, with the latter being the most important for explaining the biogeographical patterns found.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 94 , 175–194.     

Patterns of species richness and biogeographic regionalization of the avifaunas of the seasonally dry tropical forest in Mesoamerica

Biogeographic patterns of avifaunas associated with seasonally dry tropical forests in Mesoamerica are poorly understood despite their high levels of species richness and endemism. Through the parsimony analysis of endemicity, we analyzed biogeographic relationships of 650 resident species of birds associated with seasonally dry tropical forests from Mexico to Panama, based on potential distributions obtained through ecological niche modeling. Results show two general avifaunal groups, east and west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Patterns of biogeographic distribution and species richness also helped illuminate the importance of key areas for birds associated to this habitat in the region.

Los patrones biogeográficos de las avifaunas asociadas a los bosques tropicales estacionalmente secos en Mesoamérica están pobremente entendidos, a pesar de que estas áreas poseen una gran riqueza de especies y endemismo. Analizamos las relaciones biogeográficas con base en distribuciones potenciales, hechas a partir de modelos del nicho ecológico usando el análisis de parsimonia de endemismos, de 650 especies de aves residentes asociadas a los bosques tropicales estacionalmente secos desde México hasta Panamá. Los resultados muestran dos grupos generales de la avifauna, al este y oeste del Istmo de Tehuantepec. El contexto biogeográfico y la riqueza de especies resalta también la importancia de áreas clave para las aves asociadas a este tipo de hábitat en la región.     

Patterns of Amazonian area relationships based on raw distributions of papilionid butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilioninae)

Diversifications within a biota are due to several factors. Although some of these are untestable with current analytical methods, hierarchical congruence obtained with different cladistic methods and based on independent taxa are undoubtedly important. In the recent past, most hypotheses of historical biogeography (e.g. refugial, riverine, disturbance, vicariance) were tested on the Amazonian biota, selecting a number of diverse organisms such as plants, anurans, lizards, butterflies, birds and monkeys. In this study we used parsimony analysis of endemicity to infer historical relationships among 16 interfluvial areas in the Amazonian lowlands based on raw distributions of 114 Papilioninae (Lepidoptera). The analysis yielded two most parsimonious trees of area relationships. One tree was characterized by two main clusters of areas which showed a separation of Guyanan + south-east Amazonian interfluvial areas from western Amazonian interfluvial areas. The second tree showed the Guyanan interfluvial areas basal to a cluster which included all the other interfluvial areas. This latter cluster was subdivided into two main groups of areas separating the south-east Amazonian and the western Amazonian interfluvial areas. This result is discussed in the light of previous hypotheses obtained with the same method using some vertebrate taxa in the Amazonian lowlands. Likewise, comparisons with other hypotheses on lineages of birds, mammals and butterflies obtained applying cladistic biogeographical methods are made. The two alternative vicariant patterns presented for papilionid butterflies are strictly congruent with those for birds.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 82 , 345–357.     

Application of parsimony analysis of endemicity in Amazonian biogeography: an example with primates

The distributions of 51 non-human primate species are used for Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity (PAE) to determine the relationships among 14 interfluvial regions in the Amazon basin, South America. Two most parsimonious cladograms were found. The strict consensus tree of these cladograms suggests an early separation between Lower Amazonia (eastern) and Upper Amazonia (western). The major clusters of interfluvial regions identified in the PAE cladogram are congruent with the areas of endemism delimited for birds. When interfluvial regions are converted into avian areas of endemism, the PAE cladogram is congruent with one of the two general areas cladograms suggested for Amazonia based on phylogenies of several clades of forest birds. Our analysis suggests that PAE can be used as a tool to objectively identify areas of endemism at an intra-continental scale as well as to make historical inferences. However, the value of a PAE cladogram in this latter application should be always evaluated by congruence with area cladograms built upon cladistic biogeography procedures.     

Biogeographical analysis of the flea beetle genus Chaetocnema in the Afrotropical Region: distribution patterns and areas of endemism

Aim The areal distributions of Chaetocnema species in the Afrotropical Region have been analysed with the aims of determining the distribution patterns (chorotypes) and identifying the most important areas of endemism for this flea beetle genus in sub‐Saharan Africa. Location Data were collected in sub‐Saharan Africa, including Madagascar. Methods The Afrotropical Region was divided into 103 5° quadrats (operative geographical units, or OGUs). A presence–absence matrix of the Afrotropical Chaetocnema species in the OGUs was analysed by cluster analysis (Baroni Urbani & Buser index and the WPGMA clustering method) to generate distribution pattern data based on similarity of distribution. The most important areas of endemism were identified by parsimony analysis of endemicity. Results The general distribution of Chaetocnema in the Afrotropical Region was found to be associated with moist environments and montane grasslands. Most species exhibit restricted geographical ranges. Cluster analysis revealed 120 spatial distributions that can be grouped into 13 distinct distribution patterns (chorotypes). The most important areas of endemism for Chaetocnema in sub‐Saharan Africa according to the present parsimony analysis of endemicity are: (1) central and eastern Madagascar [endemicity rate (ER) = 61.1%], (2) Western Cape Province (ER = 36.4%), (3) southern Drakensberg (ER = 26.7%), (4) the Shaba Region (ER = 16.7%), and (5) the North‐Kivu Region (ER = 5.0%). Main conclusions There are 123 known species of Chaetocnema in the Afrotropical Region, more than in any other zoogeographical region. About 91% of the species are endemic and they generally exhibit a restricted and often very localized geographical range. The remaining 9% of the species are represented by seven species that also inhabit northern Africa and/or the Arabian peninsula (C. bilunulata Demaison, C. ganganensis Bechyné, C. ljuba Bechyné, C. pulla Chapuis, C. tarsalis Wollaston, and C. wollastoni Baly), three species that widely inhabit the Palaearctic Region (C. conducta (Motschulsky), C. schlaeflini (Stierlin), and C. tibialis (Illiger)), and two species that were introduced (C. confinis Crotch, and C. picipes Stephens).     

Parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) of Mexican terrestrial mammals at different area units: when size matters

Abstract Aim Parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) is a biogeographical method that uses a parsimony algorithm to obtain an area cladogram, based on taxa inhabiting the study areas. We compare its performance at different geographical units (½° and 1° quadrats, ecoregions and biogeographical provinces) to analyse distributional patterns of Mexican terrestrial mammals, in order to assess the importance of the size of area units. Location The area analysed corresponds to Mexico. Methods Parsimony analyses were based on 56,859 collection records, corresponding to 703 genera, species and subspecies. Four data matrices were constructed for: (1) 716 quadrats of ½° latitude × ½° longitude, (2) 230 quadrats of 1° latitude × 1° longitude, (3) forty‐five ecoregions and (4) fourteen biogeographical provinces. Results For the ½° quadrat matrix, we obtained six cladograms of 17,138 steps. For the 1° quadrat matrix, we obtained five cladograms (strict consensus with 9394 steps). For the matrix of ecoregions, we obtained twelve cladograms (strict consensus cladogram with 3009 steps). For the provinces, we obtained a single cladogram with 1603 steps. Main conclusions The best results were obtained with natural areas instead of quadrats. There seems to exist a trend to decrease the absolute number of steps and an increase in the absolute and relative number of synapomorphies as the size of the area units decreases, although this does not necessarily occur for the number of cladograms.     

A complex biogeographic history of diversification in Neotropical lancehead pitvipers (Serpentes,Viperidae)

Based on the literature, we had predicted that the diversification within the Neotropical snake genus Bothrops occurred along a latitudinal gradient from north to south, with diversification into unoccupied niches through ecological opportunity, not correlated with geoclimatic events. Using a dated phylogeny and estimating likelihoods of ancestral states at cladogenesis events, we reconstructed ancestral areas and assessed major events of the diversification of Bothrops clades, and we also discuss systematic implications for this group. Based on the phylogeny we produced, B. lojanus was not considered as part of the genus Bothrops since the results recovered this species nested within the Bothrocophias clade. We infer that the diversification of the Miocene Bothrops pictus and Bothrops alternatus clades may be related to the uplift of the western slopes of the Andes and the Argentinian Patagonian Andes, respectively. The Pliocene Bothrops taeniatus and Bothrops osbornei clades may be related to the uplift of the eastern and northern Andes, respectively. The Plio-Pleistocene Bothrops neuwiedi clade may be related to the habitat transitions from a warmer and forested environment to a cooler and open landscape; the Bothrops jararaca (i.e. island endemic species) and Bothrops lanceolatus clades to over-water dispersal with island speciation; and Bothrops atrox clade to the appearance of the Panamanian land bridge. We found that a multitemporal and multidirectional history of diversification may be correlated with geoclimatic and dispersalist events. We argue that the vacant niche hypothesis by itself does not explain Bothrops diversification.     

New genera and species of Neotropical Exosternini (Coleoptera,Histeridae)

We describe the following 8 new genera and 23 new species of Neotropical Exosternini. Conocassis gen. n. (Conocassis minor sp. n. [type species], Conocassis dromedaria sp. n., Conocassis trisulcata sp. n., and Conocassis invaginata sp. n.), Enkyosoma gen. n. (Enkyosoma rockwelli sp. n.), Pluricosta gen. n. (Pluricosta onthophiloides sp. n.), Pyxister gen. n. (Pyxister devorator sp. n. [type species] and Pyxister labralis sp. n.), Chapischema gen. n. (Chapischema doppelganger sp. n.), Scaptorus gen. n. (Scaptorus pyramus sp. n.), Lacrimorpha gen. n. (Lacrimorpha glabra sp. n. [type species], Lacrimorpha balbina sp. n., Lacrimorpha subdepressa sp. n., and Lacrimorpha acuminata sp. n.), Crenulister gen. n. (Crenulister grossus sp. n. [type species], Crenulister explanatus sp. n., Crenulister dentatus sp. n., Crenulister impar sp. n., Crenulister umbrosus sp. n., Crenulister simplex sp. n., Crenulister paucitans sp. n., Crenulister spinipes sp. n., and Crenulister seriatus sp. n.) These all represent highly distinctive and phylogenetically isolated forms, almost invariably known from very few specimens. All but one species have been collected only by passive flight intercept traps, and nothing significant is known about the biology of any of them.     

Areas of endemism and patterns of diversity for aphids of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas

Aim  The study aimed to identify areas of endemism for aphids in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas (QTPH), and to test congruence between patterns of endemism and patterns of overall species richness identified in a previous study.
Location  The QTPH.
Methods  A distribution data base of 326 endemic aphids in the QTPH was compiled. The study area was divided into a grid of 2°× 2° operative geographical units. Parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) was used to identify areas of endemism, and the diversity patterns of endemic species were then mapped using GIS.
Results  We identified 326 endemic species belonging to 138 genera within Adelgidae and 14 subfamilies of Aphididae. Five areas of endemism were found using PAE analysis: the eastern Himalayas, the western Himalayas, north-western Yunnan, southern Tibet and the eastern QTPH. Maps of patterns of endemism identified four major centres for endemic aphids, namely the western Himalayas, the eastern Himalayas (or Sikkim-Assam Himalayas), north-western Hengduan Mountains and the mountains of southern Gansu Province, and three minor centres, southern Tibet, south-eastern Tibet and the eastern Qinghai Province in the north-eastern QTPH.
Main conclusions  Our study identifies major centres of aphid endemism. Furthermore, there is a noticeable congruence between patterns of endemism and patterns of species richness. The patterns of endemism were most likely influenced by the recent uplift of the QTPH.     

Historical biogeography of the Yucatan Peninsula,Mexico: a perspective from ferns (Monilophyta) and lycopods (Lycophyta)

Based on known data sets and maximum entropy distribution data of fern and lycopod species registered in the Yucatán Peninsula, track and parsimony analyses were undertaken to evaluate the contribution of these groups to the establishment of biogeographical relationships of the peninsula with other areas. The resulting generalized tracks clearly agree with the geological origin of the peninsula and the previously recognized relationship with the Greater Antilles is not supported for ferns and lycopods. Instead, a Central American generalized track connects the Yucatán Peninsula with south‐eastern México and Central America. Floristically, the peninsula harbours 66 species of ferns and lycopods. Seven are registered for the first time in the Yucatán Peninsula and one is a new species for México. These species do not follow the latitudinal pattern expected if ecological factors, such as humidity and rainfall, were the most important in determining their distributions. Groups of areas recognized with parsimony analysis of endemicity could not be defined as provinces as a result of the lack of endemic species. Nevertheless, a regionalization scheme based on maximum entropy distribution data and supported by track analyses is proposed. Two separate districts are recognized within the Yucatán Peninsula: arid/dry Yucatán in the north and El Petén (humid) in the south. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 98 , 775–786.