Application of complex conservation strategy to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Iris atrofusca</Emphasis> of the Northern Negev,Israel

We applied the quasi in situ conservation strategy, described in an accompanying paper, to a critically endangered plant species, Iris atrofusca from the Northern Negev, Israel. As the first steps of this strategy implementation we performed habitat and demographic observations; creation of two living collections outside the natural populations, but within the same ecological conditions; and relocation experiments. Plants in the living collections got established and showed high reproductive potential. In the relocation experiments, 3 years after introduction of rhizomes, no firm conclusions could be made about factors limiting species distribution at either large or small scale, but microhabitat was important for relocation success. We conclude that complex conservation approach that includes quasi in situ strategy should be useful for an endangered species that is distributed over variable ecological conditions.     

Theex situ conservation of temperate rainforest conifer tree species: A British-based programme

This programme provides a practical initiative promoting the conservation of rare and endangered conifer and associated temperate rainforest tree species, by providing a scientifically sound strategy to minimise further genetic erosion of an already fragmented wild tree resource. Using existing horticultural expertise and the tree-growing potential of the British climate, the programme provides for the development of permanent, scientifically structured, threatened conifer breeding populations, in a network of sites across the British Isles and elsewhere, as a long-term species rescue strategy. To these sites are attached important future research and public education programmes.     

重要物种优先保护种群的确定

由于同一物种不同种群的重要性不同、用于物种保护的资金有限以及保护与发展经济之间的矛盾,因此对于重要物种（尤其是濒危种类以及农作物和驯化动物的野生近缘种）需要确定保护什么以及保护哪儿。目前确定优先保护种群的方法主要有3类,分别为基于遗传变异、基于遗传差异性和基于遗传贡献率的方法。基于遗传变异的方法主要是根据遗传变异程度（尤其是等位基因多样性）来确定优先保护的顺序,但忽略了种群之间的遗传差异性,这容易使得存在于遗传变异程度较低的种群中的特有等位基因得不到有效保护。而基于遗传差异性的方法（如确定进化显著单元）则是从遗传分化程度的角度考虑优先性,即独特性越强的种群越具有保护价值。基于遗传贡献率的方法由于综合考虑了遗传多样性和差异性,最适合于确定哪些种群需要优先保护。我国开展此类研究十分必要。     

Model‐based conservation planning of the genetic diversity of Phellodendron amurense Rupr due to climate change

Climate change affects both habitat suitability and the genetic diversity of wild plants. Therefore, predicting and establishing the most effective and coherent conservation areas is essential for the conservation of genetic diversity in response to climate change. This is because genetic variance is a product not only of habitat suitability in conservation areas but also of efficient protection and management. Phellodendron amurense Rupr. is a tree species (family Rutaceae) that is endangered due to excessive and illegal harvesting for use in Chinese medicine. Here, we test a general computational method for the prediction of priority conservation areas (PCAs) by measuring the genetic diversity of P. amurense across the entirety of northeast China using a single strand repeat analysis of twenty microsatellite markers. Using computational modeling, we evaluated the geographical distribution of the species, both now and in different future climate change scenarios. Different populations were analyzed according to genetic diversity, and PCAs were identified using a spatial conservation prioritization framework. These conservation areas were optimized to account for the geographical distribution of P. amurense both now and in the future, to effectively promote gene flow, and to have a long period of validity. In situ and ex situ conservation, strategies for vulnerable populations were proposed. Three populations with low genetic diversity are predicted to be negatively affected by climate change, making conservation of genetic diversity challenging due to decreasing habitat suitability. Habitat suitability was important for the assessment of genetic variability in existing nature reserves, which were found to be much smaller than the proposed PCAs. Finally, a simple set of conservation measures was established through modeling. This combined molecular and computational ecology approach provides a framework for planning the protection of species endangered by climate change.     

Assessing habitat suitability for the translocation of Ochrosia tahitensis (Apocynaceae), a critically endangered endemic plant from the island of Tahiti (South Pacific)

Reintroduction or translocation of threatened plant species, as part of in situ conservation efforts, often failed because of the lack or the poor quality of remaining natural habitats due to human disturbances and invasion by alien species, especially in island ecosystems. We conducted a study on Ochrosia tahitensis (Apocynaceae), a critically endangered endemic small tree in the tropical high volcanic island of Tahiti (French Polynesia, South Pacific) to find the most suitable sites for future translocation. Distribution models were produced based on climate, topography, and plant community inventories (i.e. species composition and abundance, canopy height and openness, basal area of woody species) of the few remnant populations. Results show that this species, comprising 32 reproductive trees within 16 populations known in the wild, remains restricted to a few ecological refuges representing a very small part of its potential ecological range located on the northwest side of the island, and shares its current habitats with a set of more common native woody species found in mesic-wet forests. The use of native plant communities as a proxy for habitat suitability along with species distribution modelling can enhance translocation success in island ecosystems, but only if the major threats causing population decrease, mainly forest destruction and fragmentation and invasive alien species, are effectively managed.     

Complete genotyping in conservation genetics, a case study of a critically endangered shrub, Stachyurus macrocarpus var. prunifolius (Stachyuraceae) in the Ogasawara Islands, Japan

More than 3,000 species are listed as critically endangered worldwide, and various conservation measures such as habitat restoration, assisted reproduction and establishment of ex situ populations would be required to prevent their extinction. We determined the genotype of all 15 known wild clumps using nuclear microsatellite markers for Stachyurus macrocarpus var. prunifolius, a critically endangered shrub endemic to the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands of Japan. In addition, the seedlings propagated from seeds taken from one wild clumps were genotyped. The results of complete genotyping showed that both wild and nursery populations had population-specific alleles. Two alleles were detected only in the nursery population, indicating the existence of undiscovered mature individuals in the wild. Four alleles were found only in the wild and were detected in two geographically isolated clumps, and this finding may propose that re-introduction and transplantation between different sites requires sensitive handling in terms of the conservation of evolutionary significant units. These results show that complete genotyping can provide essential genetic and ecological information for effective management of endangered species.     

Success Rates for Reintroductions of Eight Perennial Plant Species after 15 Years

The creation of new populations of rare and endangered plant species has become well‐established as a standard technique in conservation and restoration ecology. However, much remains unknown about the actual rates of success or failure of such reintroductions. Recent research suggests that in part this reflects under‐reporting of failures. In 2000, the authors published a paper reporting rates of success in reintroducing eight perennial plant species into two reserves near Boston, MA, in 1994–1995. In 2010, the authors conducted a recensus of the experimental sites 15 years after reintroduction; almost all the populations reported in 2000 had disappeared. The implications for reintroduction methodology, with respect to establishing and reporting both successful and unsuccessful experiments are discussed.     

Impact of nest relocation on the reproductive success of Loggerhead Turtles,Caretta caretta,in the Göksu Delta,Turkey (Reptilia: Cheloniidae)

When the nests of marine turtles are at a risk of inundation, relocation of the nests are often used in the conservation measures. Here, I determined the effect of nest relocation on Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) egg hatching success during the 2013 and 2014 nesting seasons in the Göksu Delta, Mersin, Turkey. I compared natural and relocated clutches, including those relocated before and after inundation, and evaluated 102 (94.6%) and 63 (81.1%) of survived nests in 2013 and 2014 respectively. Relocated nests experienced a 30% decrease in hatching success and a more prolonged incubation period compared to nests left in situ. Egg failure in nests relocated before and after inundation was similar in early-stage embryos, whereas it was three-fold higher in mid-stage embryos and two-fold lower in late-stage embryos. Thus, there was no significant difference in overall hatching success between the two relocation types. Moreover, there was no effect of delayed relocation of nests after inundation on hatching success. Possible impacts specific to the nesting site should be considered and explored before using nest relocation as a conservation tool. The relocation approach is recommended for nests at a high risk of inundation when the loss of nests is inevitable.     

Effects of captivity,diet, and relocation on the gut bacterial communities of white‐footed mice

Microbes can have important impacts on their host's survival. Captive breeding programs for endangered species include periods of captivity that can ultimately have an impact on reintroduction success. No study to date has investigated the impacts of captive diet on the gut microbiota during the relocation process of generalist species. This study simulated a captive breeding program with white‐footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) to describe the variability in gut microbial community structure and composition during captivity and relocation in their natural habitat, and compared it to wild individuals. Mice born in captivity were fed two different diets, a control with dry standardized pellets and a treatment with nonprocessed components that reflect a version of their wild diet that could be provided in captivity. The mice from the two groups were then relocated to their natural habitat. Relocated mice that had the treatment diet had more phylotypes in common with the wild‐host microbiota than mice under the control diet or mice kept in captivity. These results have broad implications for our understanding of microbial community dynamics and the effects of captivity on reintroduced animals, including the potential impact on the survival of endangered species. This study demonstrates that ex situ conservation actions should consider a more holistic perspective of an animal's biology including its microbes.     

Living quarters of a living fossil—Uncovering the current distribution pattern of the rediscovered Hula painted frog (Latonia nigriventer) using environmental DNA

One of the greatest challenges of effective conservation measures is the correct identification of sites where rare and elusive organisms reside. The recently rediscovered Hula painted frog (Latonia nigriventer) has not been seen for many decades and was therefore categorized extinct. Since its rediscovery in 2011, individuals from the critically endangered species have been found, with great effort, only in four restricted sites. We applied the environmental DNA (eDNA) approach to search for new populations of the Hula painted frog in suitable aquatic habitats. We further used the eDNA data to classify the landscape factors associated with the species distribution and to predict its suitable habitats. We sampled 52 aquatic sites in the Hula Valley during the spring of 2015 and 2016 and amplified the samples with a species‐specific qPCR assay. DNA of the Hula painted frog was detected in 22 of the sites, all of which clustered within three main areas. A boosting classification model showed that soil type, vegetation cover and the current and former habitats are all key predictors of the frog's current distribution. Intriguingly, the habitat suitability models reveal a high affinity of the species to its long‐lost habitat of the historical wetlands. Our findings encourage a series of informed searches for new populations of this threatened frog and provide guidance for future conservation management programmes. In the era of global conservation crisis of amphibians, developing the eDNA approach, a reliable detection method for many critically endangered and elusive amphibians, is of particular importance.     

Use of Restored Riparian Habitat by the Endangered Least Bell's Vireo (Vireo bellii pusillus)

A primary objective of riparian restoration in California is the creation of habitat for endangered species. Four restoration sites in San Diego County were monitored between 1989 and 1993 and evaluated for their suitability as nesting habitat for Vireo bellii pusillus (Least Bell's Vireo), a state and federally endangered obligate riparian breeder. Vegetation structure at each site was quantified annually and compared to a model of canopy architecture derived from Least Bell's Vireo territories in natural habitat. Vireo use of restored habitat was documented through systematic surveys and nest monitoring. By 1993, only one site in its entirety met the habitat suitability criteria of the model, but portions of each site during all years did so. Differences between sites in the time required to develop suitable habitat—well-developed layered vegetation from the ground to under 8m in height)—were attributable largely to variation in annual rainfall. Vireos visited restoration sites to forage as early as the first growing season, but they did not establish territories or nest there until at least part of the site supported suitable habitat as determined from the model. Placement of territories and nests coincided with patches of dense vegetation characteristic of natural nesting areas. Occupation of restored sites was accelerated by the presence of adjacent mature riparian habitat, which afforded birds nest sites and/or foraging habitat lacking in the planted vegetation. Vireos nesting in restored habitat achieved success comparable to that of vireos nesting in surrounding natural habitat, and there was no evidence that productivity was reduced in created areas. These findings indicate that creating nesting habitat for this target species is feasible and suggest that the critical components of vireo nesting habitat have been captured in both the design and quantitative assessment of restoration sites.     

LIMITED GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE VOCALIZATIONS OF THE ENDANGERED THICK-BILLED PARROT: IMPLICATIONS FOR CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

The populations of many species are declining worldwide, and conservation efforts struggle to keep pace with extinction rates. Conservation biologists commonly employ strategies such as translocation and reintroduction, which move individuals of endangered species from one part of their range to another. Because individuals from endangered populations are nonexpendable, identifying any potential barriers to the establishment of viable populations prior to release of individuals should be a priority. This study evaluates the potential for learned communication signals to constrain conservation strategies such as reintroduction in an endangered species, the Thick-billed Parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha). We conducted vocal surveys at three geographically distinct breeding populations in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Mexico. Acoustic analyses utilizing both spectrogram cross-correlations and parameter measurements from spectrograms revealed no significant differences among the three sites in two common call types. Calls did vary among individuals within a site. The apparent lack of significant geographic variation across sampled sites suggests that differences in learned communication signals are unlikely to pose a barrier to the integration of translocated individuals from different populations into newly established populations.     

Conservation of deer: contributions from molecular biology, evolutionary ecology, and reproductive physiology

Molecular phylogenetics, interspecific comparisons, and assisted reproductive techniques are recent approaches to understanding and facilitating conservation of endangered species. This paper reviews the contribution of these approaches to a small but well-studied group of mammals, deer, many of which are endangered in the wild. Conservation efforts require a comprehensive understanding of the biology and history of these animals. The value of assisted reproductive technologies for conservation of deer has received increased awareness especially for captive populations. Such breeding programmes are designed to assist propagation of threatened species and to maximize genetic diversity within populations through the movement of genetic material across the globe, but will only be successful if we understand the genetic and reproductive potential of various lineages. Here we discuss the phylogenetic status of deer, the distinctiveness and evolution of their reproductive patterns, and current approaches for improving the success of controlled breeding programmes for the conservation of endangered lineages. Only by combining both theoretical and practical approaches to conservation efforts can we hope to salvage the remaining organismal diversity of our planet.     

Restoration genetics of the vernal pool endemic Lasthenia conjugens (Asteraceae)

Restoration of habitat for endangered species often involves translocation of seeds or individuals from source populations to an area targeted for revegetation. Long-term persistence of a species is dependent on the maintenance of sufficient genetic variation within and among populations. Thus, knowledge and maintenance of genetic variability within rare or endangered species is essential for developing effective conservation and restoration strategies. Genetic monitoring of both natural and restored populations can provide an assessment of restoration protocol success in establishing populations that maintain levels of genetic diversity similar to those in natural populations. California’s vernal pools are home to many endangered plants, thus conservation and restoration are large components of their management. Lasthenia conjugens (Asteraceae) is a federally endangered self-incompatible vernal pool annual with gravity- dispersed seeds. Using the molecular technique of intersimple sequence repeats (ISSRs), this study assessed levels and patterns of genetic variability present within natural and restored populations of L. conjugens. At Travis Air Force Base near Fairfield, California, a vernal pool restoration project is underway. Genetic success of the ecologically based seeding protocol was examined through genetic monitoring of natural and restored populations over a three-year period. Genetic diversity remained constant across the three sampled generations. Diversity was also widely distributed across all populations. We conclude that the protocol used to establish restored populations was successful in capturing similar levels and patterns of genetic diversity to those seen within natural pools. This study also demonstrates how genetic markers can be used to inform conservation and restoration decisions.     

偶蹄类动物的遗传多样性研究与技术比较

研究和保护遗传多样性成为野生偶蹄类动物保护生物学的重要课题。目前测定遗传多样性的技术主要有 :数量性状的遗传分析 ,蛋白电泳多样性和以DNA为遗传标记等一系列测定方法。这些方法基于不同的原理 ,其操作的难易、耗费的时间精力以及数据所能说明的问题有一定差别。因此研究偶蹄类动物遗传多样性应选择适宜的技术方法。     

Beyond the point of no return? A comparison of genetic diversity in captive and wild populations of two nearly extinct species of Goodeid fish reveals that one is inbred in the wild

The relative importance of genetic and non-genetic factors in extinction liability has been extensively debated. Here, we examine the levels of genetic variability at 13 (seven informative) loci in wild and captive populations of two endangered species of Mexican Goodeid fish, Ameca splendens and Zoogoneticus tequila. Allelic diversity was higher in the wild populations, and F(IS) lower. Values of theta (=4Nemu) were estimated using a coalescent approach. These implied that the effective population size of all captive populations of A. splendens were smaller than that of the wild population; qualitatively similar results were obtained using an analytical method based on within-population gene identity disequilibrium. However, the wild population of Z. tequila did not show a significantly greater estimate of theta. We used the Beaumont approach to infer population declines, and found that both species showed clear evidence of a decline in effective population size, although this was stronger and probably occurred over a longer period of time in Z. tequila than in A. splendens. The decline in Z. tequila probably occurred before captive populations were established. We discuss implications for the conservation of critically endangered populations.     

Assessing re-introductions of the African Wild dog (Lycaon pictus) in the Limpopo Valley Conservancy, South Africa, using the stochastic simulation program VORTEX

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) is one of Africa's most endangered species and therefore classified as endangered by IUCN. Earlier distributions included most of Africa but currently the African wild dog only has populations larger than 300 individuals in three countries (Botswana, Tanzania and South Africa). In 1998, a plan was launched in South Africa to manage sub-populations of the African wild dog in several small, geographically isolated, conservation areas. This management program involved the reintroduction of wild dogs into suitable conservation areas and periodic translocations among them. We used the stochastic population simulation model VORTEX to evaluate the Limpopo Valley Conservancy in the north of South Africa, as a possible reintroduction site for African wild dogs. The simulations showed that the size of the initial population released only had a small effect on the population dynamics. However, when individuals were supplemented and harvested over a longer period the probability of persistence increased. Number of females breeding, male mortality, and carrying capacity were key factors in the population dynamics, but according to VORTEX the severity of natural catastrophes had the greatest influence on the extinction risk and inbreeding. We suggest that the reintroduction program may be successful, if areas are properly secured, the dogs are held in a boma before release, wild animals or at least a mix of wild and captive animals are used for the release and the animals are vaccinated against rabies. It is, however, essential to continue monitoring followed by modelling efforts to re-evaluate the success of the reintroduction program.     

Is use of translocation for the conservation of subpopulations of oribi Ourebia ourebi (Zimmermann) effective? A case study

In South Africa, the oribi, Ourebia ourebi is an endangered small antelope that requires conservation management and intervention to prevent their extinction. Use of translocation for the conservation of subpopulations facing local extinction in the wild has been proposed. In this study, fifteen oribi from threatened populations were captured and released (November 2004) on a private game reserve in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Radio telemetry was used to monitor the dispersal and survival of translocated oribi. Only one death occurred during that period. All other released oribi survived, and most remained in close proximity of the release site for more than a year postrelease. Reproduction also occurred. This suggests that, translocation could be a viable option for conserving wild populations of oribi, assuming that other factors, such as availability of suitable grassland habitat and that poaching has been curtailed, are met.     

Beach erosion and nest site selection by the leatherback sea turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Testudines: Dermochelyidae) and implications for management practices at Playa Gandoca, Costa Rica

Leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) nest on dynamic, erosion-prone beaches. Erosive processes and resulting nest loss have long been presumed to be a hindrance to clutch survival. In order to better understand how leatherbacks cope with unstable nesting beaches, I investigated the role of beach erosion in leatherback nest site selection at Playa Gandoca, Costa Rica. I also examined the potential effect of nest relocation, a conservation strategy in place at Playa Gandoca to prevent nest loss to erosion, on the temperature of incubating clutches. I monitored changes in beach structure as a result of erosion at natural nest sites during the time the nest was laid, as well as in subsequent weeks. To investigate slope as a cue for nest site selection, I measured the slope of the beach where turtles ascended from the sea to nest, as well as the slopes at other random locations on the beach for comparison. I examined temperature differences between natural and relocated nest sites with thermocouples placed in the sand at depths typical of leatherback nests. Nests were distributed non-randomly in a clumped distribution along the length of the beach and laid at locations that were not undergoing erosion. The slope at nest sites was significantly different than at randomly chosen locations on the beach. The sand temperature at nest depths was significantly warmer at natural nest sites than at locations of relocated nests. The findings of this study suggest leatherbacks actively select nest sites that are not undergoing erosive processes, with slope potentially being used as a cue for site selection. The relocation of nests appears to be inadvertently cooling the nest environment. Due to the fact that leatherback clutches undergo temperature-dependent sex determination, the relocation of nests may be producing an unnatural male biasing of hatchlings. The results of this study suggest that the necessity of relocation practices, largely in place to protect nests from erosion, should be reevaluated to ensure the proper conservation of this critically endangered species.