Assessing the role of invasive weeds in the impact of successional habitats on the bird assemblage in overgrowing agriculture

Agricultural habitats are assumed to be biodiversity refuges. However, some studies treat agricultural land management as a cause of the biodiversity decline, to which habitat loss and heterogeneity may contribute. Between the crops, the successional habitats appear – ruderal plant communities and bush areas. Their influence on farmland biodiversity is unknown. This research assessed the impact of spatial relationships between agricultural areas, semi-natural meadows and successional habitats on the bird species richness, Shannon diversity index, and Faith’s phylogenetic diversity index. An additional habitat variable was the presence of weeds, i.e., invasive Caucasian hogweeds Heracleum sp., treated as crops in the past. The birds and habitats research was on 74 sites set in pairs (invaded vs control) in south-eastern Poland. Results showed that birds assembling in agricultural and semi-natural areas were more diverse and contained protected farmland species, while birds appearing in overgrown habitats (i.e., successional and invaded) were clumped with their habitat requirements. In the presence of plant invaders, ruderal habitats negatively affected the bird phylogenetic diversity index. In invaded sites, bush areas had no positive effects on the Shannon diversity index and species richness of birds, in contrast with control sites. The presented research suggests the need to re-evaluate the importance of successional non-crop habitats considered positive in agricultural landscapes if those habitats develop in areas with plant invasion.     

Winter habitat associations of seed-eating passerines on Scottish farmland

CapsuleExtensive surveys highlighted the importance of weedy fodder brassicas, stubbles and open farmland landscapes to declining birds.

Aims To determine habitat associations of seed-eating passerines on Scottish farmland in winter, and recommend appropriate conservation measures.

Methods Transect surveys were carried out on farmland in 100 1-km squares, containing 2885 fields, across Scotland. Birds, crops, field boundary features and weeds were recorded on three visits. Bird–habitat associations were examined using logistic regression models.

Results Seed-eating passerines were highly concentrated: 100 fields (1.4% of the area surveyed) held half the total count. The highest field densities of birds were recorded in fodder brassica crops and stubbles, averaging 12 and 3.3 birds/ha respectively. In fodder crops, weedier fields held many more birds. Multiple regression analysis emphasized the importance of fodder crops, stubbles and farmyards and suggested that declining bird species preferred more open landscapes. Several bird species were associated with fields containing very weedy patches, and/or weeds of the family Chenopodiaceae. These features were commonest in fodder brassicas. Many of the crop types found to be important as bird habitats in winter have declined in area in Scotland; the availability of seed food in such habitats may also have diminished. Such changes may partly explain recent population declines.

Conclusions Agri-environment measures for seed-eating passerines should support the widespread provision of small areas of seed-rich wintering habitats, such as weedy fodder brassicas and stubbles, especially in open (0–10% woodland and scrub) landscapes in areas with mild winters.     

Indices of bird-habitat preference from field surveys of birds and remote sensing of land cover: a study of south-eastern England with wider implications for conservation and biodiversity assessment

Aim This paper describes the development of novel indices of bird‐habitat preference to examine bird species’ use of habitats and their distributions relative to habitats. It assesses the implications for bird conservation regionally and the scope for biodiversity assessments generally. Location A 200 km by 400 km area of farmland with seminatural and urban areas, covering south‐eastern England. Methods Cluster analysis was used to link birds to landscapes. Cluster centroid coordinate values were processed to derive indices of bird‐habitat preference. Further developments assessed the relative values of individual habitats for birds. Results Clustering objectively linked birds to landscapes. Maps of the clusters showed strong regional patterns associated with distinctive habitat assemblages. Derived indices related bird species directly to individual habitats and habitats to birds. Even rare species and scarce habitats showed successful linkages, often to each other. Objective corroboration strongly supported the associations of coastal, wetland, urban and woodland birds and habitats; but, it suggested that farmland birds, whose numbers have nearly halved since 1977, may prefer alternative habitats. Main conclusions Land cover maps from remote sensing provide an effective way to link birds to habitats and vice versa. Thus, generalized habitat maps might be used to extrapolate localized or sample‐based bird observations or the results of autecological studies, helping to predict and understand bird distributions in the wider countryside. The weak links between farmland birds and farmland habitats in a region dominated by farming, suggests that reasons for the decline in farmland birds may be deep seated and thus hard to reverse. The procedures described are repeatable elsewhere and applicable more generally to evaluate landscapes and biodiversity. It is suggested that remote sensing could rarely be bettered as a means of assessing habitats, comprehensively, over wide areas, in most parts of the world.     

Composition and diversity of bird communities in Swedish farmland–forest mosaic landscapes

CapsuleThe amount of forest (at local and landscape scales) and occurrence of residual habitats at the local scale are shown to be the major factors influencing bird community composition in farmland–forest landscapes in central Sweden.

Aims To investigate the importance of local habitat and landscape structure for breeding birds in farmland–forest landscapes in central Sweden.

Methods Breeding birds were censused at 292 points. A detailed habitat mapping was made within 300 m of the points. Within a 300–600 m radius only two major habitats (forests and arable fields) were identified.

Results Cluster analyses of bird communities identified three site types that also differed in habitat composition: (i) partially forested sites in forested landscapes; (ii) heterogeneous sites with residual habitats in mosaic landscapes; and (iii) field-dominated farmland sites in open landscapes. A total of 19 of 25 farmland bird species (restricted to farmland or using both farmland and forest) had the highest abundance in farmland sites with mosaics of forest and farmland, while only six farmland species had the highest abundance in field-dominated sites. The bird community changed from being dominated by farmland species to being dominated by forest species (common in forest landscapes without farmland) at small proportions (10–20%) of forest at the local scale. A major difference in habitat composition between heterogeneous and field-dominated sites was the occurrence of different residual habitats (e.g. shrubby areas and seminatural grasslands). These habitats seemed to influence bird community composition more than land-use, despite covering <10% of the area. Seminatural grasslands were important for bird community composition and species-richness, but grazing seemed to be less important. Among different land-use types, cereal crops were the least preferred fields. Set-asides with tall vegetation and short rotation coppices were positively associated with species-richness of farmland birds.

Conclusion In general, the composition of the landscape was important for bird community composition, although amount and distribution of forests, occurrence of residual habitats and land-use of fields at the local scale had the strongest influence on bird community composition. The possible implications of these patterns for managing farmland–forest landscapes are discussed.     

High Bird Species Diversity in Structurally Heterogeneous Farmland in Western Kenya

Tropical ecosystems are globally important for bird diversity. In many tropical regions, land‐use intensification has caused conversion of natural forests into human‐modified habitats, such as secondary forests and heterogeneous agricultural landscapes. Despite previous research, the distribution of bird communities in these forest‐farmland mosaics is not well understood. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of bird diversity and community turnover in a human‐modified Kenyan landscape, we recorded bird communities at 20 sites covering the complete habitat gradient from forest (near natural forest, secondary forest) to farmland (subsistence farmland, sugarcane plantation) using point counts and distance sampling. Bird density and species richness were on average higher in farmland than in forest habitats. Within forest and farmland, bird density and species richness increased with vegetation structural diversity, i.e., were higher in near natural than in secondary forest and in subsistence farmland than in sugarcane plantations. Bird communities in forest and farmland habitats were very distinct and very few forest specialists occurred in farmland habitats. Moreover, insectivorous bird species declined in farmland habitats whereas carnivores and herbivores increased. Our study confirms that tropical farmlands can hardly accommodate forest specialist species. Contrary to most previous studies, our findings show that structurally rich tropical farmlands hold a surprisingly rich and distinct bird community that is threatened by conversion of subsistence farmland into sugarcane plantations. We conclude that conservation strategies in the tropics must go beyond rain forest protection and should integrate structurally heterogeneous agroecosystems into conservation plans that aim at maintaining the diverse bird communities of tropical forest‐farmland mosaics.     

北京密云农业景观步甲群落空间分布格局

采用陷阱法对北京密云县西田各庄南部农业景观中玉米地、花生地、果园及半自然林地4种典型生境中的步甲群落进行调查分析.结果表明: 果园步甲群落α多样性最高,花生地最低,林地与玉米地居中,且二者无显著差异;林地、花生地及果园的步甲群落结构明显不同,但均与玉米地的步甲群落结构有不同程度的相似性.果园维持着较多的捕食性步甲和兼食性步甲个体数;且不同生境间捕食性步甲的物种周转率与兼食性步甲的差异更明显.低集约化的果园生境可能较半自然生境林地维持更高的步甲群落α多样性,但多样化的景观组成有利于维持步甲群落及捕食性步甲较高的β多样性.重视景观多样性和低集约化农田生境的保护对保护农业景观步甲群落多样性和实现其害虫控制功能具有重要的意义.     

Bird communities in habitats along a successional gradient: Divergent patterns of species richness,specialization and threat

The long history of human influence on northern temperate landscapes has created a mosaic of successional stages, from closed forest to open grassland. Various species thus adapted to different habitats and it is interesting to explore how these differences in species composition among particular successional stages translate into differences at the community level. For this purpose, we surveyed breeding birds in 233 patches of five different habitats covering a gradient from bare ground to forest in 29 abandoned military training sites scattered throughout the Czech Republic. Linear mixed effects modelling revealed that late-successional habitats (dense scrubland and forest) were the most species-rich, whereas early-successional stages hosted bird communities with the highest habitat specialization and threat level. These results suggest that the habitats of late-successional stages are important for the maintenance of high bird species richness, but that early-successional habitats are essential for highly specialized and threatened bird species. Given the highly adverse impacts of agricultural intensification and land abandonment on open habitats, it is necessary to promote factors creating initial successional stages suitable for specialized and threatened species.     

Identifying key habitats for the conservation of Bonelli's Eagle Aquila fasciata using radiotracking

Identifying the priority habitats of endangered species is crucial to implementing effective conservation actions. We characterize the key habitats used by Bonelli's Eagle Aquila fasciata, an umbrella and flagship species that is endangered in Mediterranean countries. We radiotracked 17 breeding individuals (10 males and seven females) in Catalonia (NE Iberian Peninsula) and used compositional analysis to determine the key habitats in home‐ranges of both sexes. The main habitats identified within the home‐range area were scrubland, coniferous forests, cropland, sclerophyllous forests, rock outcrops and urban areas, with little difference in habitat use between the sexes. Bonelli's Eagles preferred rocky habitats as breeding areas and scrubland as foraging areas, as these hold the highest abundance of their main prey, Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus and Red‐legged Partridges Alectoris rufa. Habitat selection varied seasonally in foraging areas: scrubland was the most preferred habitat type during the breeding season, whereas rocky areas were preferred during the non‐breeding season (although scrubland was also highly selected). Urban areas were avoided both as breeding and as foraging areas. Home‐range size was inversely correlated with the proportion of scrubland, suggesting that this is a key habitat for Bonelli's Eagle. To conserve this species effectively, policies that ensure the preservation of the cliffs used as breeding sites, as well as suitable management of the scrubland used for foraging, should be implemented in the areas inhabited by this species. The promotion of traditional land uses and management techniques that will enhance open areas in Mediterranean landscapes should in the future play an essential role in the conservation of Bonelli's Eagle in Mediterranean habitats.     

Local habitat and landscape influence predation of bird nests on afforested Mediterranean cropland

Afforestation programs such as the one promoted by the EU Common Agrarian Policy have contributed to spread tree plantations on former cropland. Nevertheless these afforestations may cause severe damage to open habitat species, especially birds of high conservation value. We investigated predation of artificial bird nests at young tree plantations and at the open farmland habitat adjacent to the tree plantations in central Spain. Predation rates were very high at both tree plantations (95.6%) and open farmland habitat (94.2%) after two and three week exposure. Plantation edge/area ratio and development of the tree canopy decreased predation rates and plantation area and magpie (Pica pica) abundance increased predation rates within tree plantations, which were also affected by land use types around plantations. The area of nearby tree plantations (positive effect), distance to the tree plantation edge (negative effect), and habitat type (mainly attributable to the location of nests in vineyards) explained predation rates at open farmland habitat. We conclude that predation rates on artificial nests were particularly high and rapid at or nearby large plantations, with high numbers of magpies and low tree development, and located in homogenous landscapes dominated by herbaceous crops and pastures with no remnants of semi-natural woody vegetation. Landscape planning should not favour tree plantations as the ones studied here in Mediterranean agricultural areas that are highly valuable for ground-nesting bird species.     

Forest edges have high conservation value for bird communities in mosaic landscapes

A major conservation challenge in mosaic landscapes is to understand how trait‐specific responses to habitat edges affect bird communities, including potential cascading effects on bird functions providing ecosystem services to forests, such as pest control. Here, we examined how bird species richness, abundance and community composition varied from interior forest habitats and their edges into adjacent open habitats, within a multi‐regional sampling scheme. We further analyzed variations in Conservation Value Index (CVI), Community Specialization Index (CSI) and functional traits across the forest‐edge‐open habitat gradient. Bird species richness, total abundance and CVI were significantly higher at forest edges while CSI peaked at interior open habitats, i.e., furthest from forest edge. In addition, there were important variations in trait‐ and species‐specific responses to forest edges among bird communities. Positive responses to forest edges were found for several forest bird species with unfavorable conservation status. These species were in general insectivores, understorey gleaners, cavity nesters and long‐distance migrants, all traits that displayed higher abundance at forest edges than in forest interiors or adjacent open habitats. Furthermore, consistently with predictions, negative edge effects were recorded in some forest specialist birds and in most open‐habitat birds, showing increasing densities from edges to interior habitats. We thus suggest that increasing landscape‐scale habitat complexity would be beneficial to declining species living in mosaic landscapes combining small woodlands and open habitats. Edge effects between forests and adjacent open habitats may also favor bird functional guilds providing valuable ecosystem services to forests in longstanding fragmented landscapes.     

Bird communities of highway verges: Influence of adjacent habitat and roadside management

We have investigated the effects of landscape traversed and roadside structure on the use of highway verges by birds. Three contrasted landscapes were chosen in terms of human land use and vegetation structure: an intensive farmland, a pine plantation, and a matoral. The roadside sections varied in vegetation structure, width and profile. We recorded birds present in roadsides and adjacent habitats by transect counts over all seasons. Roadside bird species appeared for a great part similar to those of adjacent habitats. However, diversity and abundance in verges did not depend on that of adjacent habitats. Woody roadsides were comparable to hedges, as trees (and shrubs) in verges enhanced species richness and abundance of birds in the farmland and woodland sites. Width and profile of verges had less influence. In all sites, typical species of the habitat traversed partly avoided roadsides. On the contrary, numerous species associated with ‘rare’ habitats in one site preferred roadsides, provided that verge vegetation contrasted with the dominant habitat. It is concluded that birds responses to highways can vary greatly with landscape traversed and verge vegetation. Highway verges could be favorable to birds, if they constitute a complementary habitat to the dominant habitat within a landscape.     

Road-related landscape elements as a habitat: A main asset for small mammals in an intensive farming landscape

Road construction creates new habitats for a variety of species. In intensive farming landscapes, road verges may be the only suitable habitat for rodents. However, little attention has been paid to other road-related landscape elements (RRLEs), such as excavation slopes or the central islands of roundabouts, and their importance in a rodent territory. This study investigated all types of RRLE in terms of rodent abundances and habitat quality. RRLEs were compared with the semi-natural elements of the studied landscape using a capture-mark-recapture protocol. Four species and 3154 individuals were captured over a period of four months. Relative abundance and habitat quality were higher in RRLEs than in semi-natural elements. Mapping of the landscape showed that 86% of crop fields are accessible to Microtus arvalis (and almost 100% for Apodemus sylvaticus) from road verges. Our results highlight the importance of road verges and all other RRLEs in the conservation of species diversity in intensive farming landscapes.     

黄淮平原农业景观鸟类多样性及生境差异

农业景观中的鸟类多样性对生态系统功能和服务的形成与维持具有重要作用。黄淮平原区是我国最重要的农业景观区之一,为探讨区域内农业景观中鸟类多样性特征和不同生境间的差异,在研究区农业景观不同生境中布设样点,调查繁殖期鸟类多样性特征。结果显示:(1)共记录到32科、49属、66种的10044只个体,但优势科属明显;(2)物种丰富度、多样性和均匀度均表现出在沟渠、湖泊生境中较高,农田和村庄生境中相对较低,但物种多度呈现出村庄生境中最高,其次是沟渠和农田生境,湖泊生境中最低;(3)在区系分布上,各生境中均以广布种为主,生态类群上,鸣禽在各生境中均占绝对优势,涉禽和游禽主要分布在沟渠和湖泊生境中,从居留型来看,留鸟是各生境中的主导类群,候鸟、旅鸟和迷鸟比例很低;(4)鸟类群落异质性分析显示,各生境间的相似性总体上较高,表明区域内农业景观中鸟类组成具有较高的重叠性。研究显示农业景观中湖泊和沟渠的存在能有效的提高区域鸟类的丰富度和多样性,而沟渠的存在能有效的提高鸟类个体多度,农田和村庄有助于特定类群多度的增加,因此在未来的区域持续农业景观的构建中一方面要重视自然、半自然非农生境的作用,另一方面也不能忽视不同生物类群对景观异质性响应和对生境特征需求的差异。     

Abandoned military training sites are an overlooked refuge for at-risk open habitat bird species

The European landscape is under pervasive attack of massive land use changes, such as agricultural intensification, urbanization and land abandonment. These changes resulted in population decline of birds living in open habitats. Despite a good understanding on the effects of these driving forces on bird populations, effective conservation actions are difficult to conduct as these forces are closely connected with socioeconomic development of particular countries and thus almost impossible to reverse. It is hence necessary to conserve refuge sites with a limited influence of these negative factors. We surveyed birds in 42 abandoned military training sites (AMTS) in a central European country, the Czech Republic, and we have found these sites are valuable, and to date overlooked, refuges for bird conservation. Birds of high conservation concern and open habitats birds (such as Miliaria calandra, Saxicola torquata or Lullula arborea) were more abundant in AMTS than predicted by their total population size in the Czech Republic. The most important characteristics predicting attractiveness of AMTS for birds of conservation concern were low altitude, low proportion of forest/dense scrubland, high proportion of sparse scrubland/bare ground and large area. Former military activity was beneficial for declining open habitat birds by maintaining moderate disturbance levels, which are rarely found elsewhere in current landscapes. Owing to reduction of armed forces across Europe AMTS provide continental-wide network of high-quality sites for bird conservation. Nevertheless, AMTS are subject to pressure from building activities or loss of openness due to overgrowth of forest or scrub plant communities.     

Time and travelling costs during chick‐rearing in relation to habitat quality in Little Owls Athene noctua

In many bird species, parents adjust their home‐ranges during chick‐rearing to the availability and distribution of food resources, balancing the benefits of energy intake against the costs of travelling. Over recent decades, European agricultural landscapes have changed radically, resulting in the degradation of habitats and reductions in food resources for farmland birds. Lower foraging success and longer foraging trip distances that result from these changes are often assumed to reduce the reproductive performance of parents, although the mechanisms are not well understood. We tested the behavioural response of chick‐rearing Little Owls Athene noctua to variation in habitat diversity in an agricultural landscape. We equipped females with GPS loggers and received adequate range‐use data for 19 individuals (6063–14 439 locations per bird). In habitats dominated by homogeneous cropland habitats, home‐ranges were over 12 ha in size, whereas in highly diverse habitats they were below 2 ha. Large home‐ranges were associated with increased flight activity (117% of that of birds in small home‐ranges) and distances travelled per night (152%), increased duration of foraging trips (169%) covering larger distances (246%), and reduced nest visiting rates (81%). The study therefore provides strong correlative evidence that Little Owls breeding in monotonous farmland habitats expend more time and energy for a lower benefit in terms of feeding rates than do birds in more heterogeneous landscapes. As nestling food supply is the main determinant of chick survival, these results suggest a strong impact of farmland characteristics on local demographic rates. We suggest that preserving and creating islands of high habitat diversity within uniform open agricultural landscapes should be a key target in the conservation of Little Owl populations.     

黄河中下游农业景观中景观简化对传粉昆虫多样性的影响——以巩义市为例

在农业景观中,传粉昆虫的生存繁衍与半自然生境的面积大小有关。集约化生产方式使半自然生境比例逐渐减少,农田比例不断增加,随着景观简化梯度的变化(农田比例逐渐增大),传粉昆虫群落多样性将会发生怎样的变化?选择黄河中下游典型农区巩义市为研究区域,采用诱捕盘法(Pan traps)进行农田、林地的传粉昆虫取样,以21个样点作为景观简化梯度(农田比例范围5%—86%)的呈现,基于每个样点的传粉昆虫多度和丰富度变化来探究景观简化对传粉昆虫多样性的影响。结果显示:区内累计捕获传粉昆虫39660头,优势类群包括双翅目(Diptera)、膜翅目(Hymenoptera)、鞘翅目(Coleoptera)等。采用逐步回归分析及线性拟合后发现景观简化程度与传粉昆虫多度和丰富度呈显著负相关(P0.05);景观简化对传粉昆虫类群间的影响也是有差异的,其中对鞘翅目多度的影响最为密切(R~2=0.27),同时对膜翅目和双翅目也有较大影响(R~2=0.14、R~2=0.11),景观简化与鳞翅目多度呈正相关;随景观简化的程度加深,农田生境中膜翅目多度呈显著下降趋势(P0.05),而林地中膜翅目多度变化不明显。在未来的景观规划中,应着重考虑传粉昆虫中鞘翅目类群的栖息地变化及食物资源状况。依据研究结果建议林地生境中应注重保护现有的自然植被群落,在人工林中可以种植一定面积的蜜粉源植物;农田生境内对杂草群落、半自然生境斑块进行合理规划的基础上,还可以种植线性景观植物作为传粉昆虫的食物源。     

Habitat associations of British breeding farmland birds

Capsule Territory distribution for ten species was most strongly positively influenced by the presence of hedges and woodland edge.

Aims To describe and rank the importance of different habitat predictors on the distribution of bird territories.

Methods We derived territory maps for ten bird species across 25 sites on English lowland farmland in 2002. We related habitat predictors to the distribution of these species using information theoretic methods.

Results Habitat predictors were ranked as follows (numbers in parentheses indicate the number of species with a strong effect): hedge presence (8), boundary height (7), woodland edge (6), tree presence in boundary (4), brassica (mainly oil seed rape) (3), within‐field vegetation height (3), boundary strip (3), boundary width (3), tilled fields (3), winter set‐aside (2), ditch (1), winter stubble fields (1).

Conclusions Non‐cropped habitats had the most consistent positive effects across all ten species, with crop types and their margins exerting smaller effects.     

Bird community responses to habitat fragmentation: how consistent are they across landscapes?

Aim The woodland ecosystems of south‐eastern Australia have been extensively disturbed by agriculture and urbanization. Herein, the occurrence of birds in woodland remnants in three distinct landscapes was analysed to examine the effects of different types of landscape matrices on species richness vs. area and species richness vs. isolation relationships and individual species responses to woodland fragmentation. Location The study system comprised three distinct woodland landscapes of the northern Australian Capital Territory and bordering areas of New South Wales. These landscapes (termed agricultural, peri‐urban and urban) are located within 50 km of each other, have remnant fragments of similar age, size, isolation, woodland cover, elevation and climates. The major distinguishing feature of the three landscapes was the properties of the habitats surrounding the numerous woodland remnants. Methods Bird surveys, using an area‐search methodology, were conducted in 1999 and 2000 in 127 remnants in the three landscapes to determine bird species presence/absence. Each remnant was characterized by measures of remnant area, isolation and habitat complexity. To characterize differences between each landscape, we conducted an analysis of the amount of tree cover and human disturbance in each landscape using SPOT imagery and aerial photographs. Linear regressions of woodland‐dependent species richness vs. remnant area and remnant isolation for the three different landscapes were calculated to see if there were any apparent differences. Binomial logistic regressions were used to determine the relationships between the occurrence of each species and the size and isolation of woodland habitat, in each landscape. Results All the landscapes displayed a significant (P < 0.01) species vs. area relationship, but the slope of the urban relationship was significantly greater than those of the other landscapes. In contrast, only the agricultural landscape displayed a significant (P < 0.01) species richness vs. isolation relationship. When individual species were investigated, we found species that were: (1) apparently insensitive to reduction in remnant area and increase in isolation across all landscapes, (2) absent in small remnants in all landscapes, (3) absent in small remnants in all landscapes and also absent in isolated remnants in the agricultural landscape, (4) absent in isolated remnants in the agricultural landscape, and (5) absent in small remnants in the urban landscape. Threshold values (50% probability of occurrence) for area and isolation for individual species were highly variable across the three landscapes. Main conclusions These results indicate that woodland bird communities have a varying response to habitat fragmentation in different landscapes. Whilst we cannot be sure how representative our chosen landscapes are of other similarly composed landscapes, these results suggest that the type of landscape matrix may have a considerable influence on how bird species are affected by woodland fragmentation in the region. For instance, the properties of a matrix may influence both the resources available in the landscape as a whole for different bird species, and the connectivity (dispersal of birds), between woodland remnants. We encourage further research that examines these hypotheses and argue that the management of the matrix should be included in conservation strategies for fragmented landscapes.