Do functional traits offset the effects of fragmentation? The case of large-bodied diurnal lemur species

Primates worldwide are faced with increasing threats making them more vulnerable to extinction. Anthropogenic disturbances, such as habitat degradation and fragmentation, are among the main concerns, and in Madagascar, these issues have become widespread. As this situation continues to worsen, we sought to understand how fragmentation affects primate distribution throughout the island. Further, because species may exhibit different sensitivity to fragmentation, we also aimed to estimate the role of functional traits in mitigating their response. We collated data from 32 large-bodied lemur species ranges, consisting of species from the families Lemuridae (five genera) and Indriidae (two genera). We fitted Generalized Linear Models to determine the role of habitat fragmentation characteristics, for example, forest cover, patch size, edge density, and landscape configuration, as well as the protected area (PA) network, on the species relative probability of presence. We then assessed how the influence of functional traits (dietary guild, home range size) mitigate the response of species to these habitat metrics. Habitat area had a strong positive effect for many species, and there were significantly negative effects of fragmentation on the distribution of many lemur species. In addition, there was a positive influence of PAs on many lemur species’ distribution. Functional trait classifications showed that lemurs of all dietary guilds are negatively affected by fragmentation; however, folivore-frugivores show greater flexibility/variability in terms of habitat area and landscape complexity compared to nearly exclusive folivores and frugivores. Furthermore, species of all home range sizes showed a negative response to fragmentation, while habitat area had an increasingly positive effect as home range increased in size. Overall, the general trends for the majority of lemur species are dire and point to the need for immediate actions on a multitude of fronts, most importantly landscape-level reforestation efforts.     

The change in the attitudes of Czech hunters towards Eurasian lynx: Is poaching restricting lynx population growth?

Even though the Eurasian lynx is a less controversial species than the wolf or brown bear, poaching remains a major cause of lynx mortality in Europe, potentially threatening population expansion in key areas. Our study was designed to explore the attitude of hunters and other stakeholders (students of secondary forestry schools and University forestry faculties) towards lynx and their experience with illegal killing of lynx in the Czech Republic. Self-administered questionnaires were addressed to local hunters and to students in 2001 and again in 2015. The survey in 2001 was conducted in two separate hunting regions of Bohemia, one where lynx have been artificially reintroduced and another in which lynx have become established through natural colonisation. In 2015 the survey was extended to two further areas where lynx have re-established themselves through natural colonisation, in the east of the Czech Republic. Altogether 415 and 922 questionnaires were completed in 2001 and 2015, respectively. The attitude of hunters towards lynx was not affected by hunting region, lynx population density or nature of the population (human re-introductions vs natural recolonisation), but attitudes became more negative in 2015 than they had been in 2001. The majority of hunters still believed that lynx had negative effects on other wildlife and 27% stated that they do not wish to co-exist with lynx. Half of secondary school students and a third of tertiary students still believe that lynx threaten roe deer stocks, even though roe and red deer are present at high density and cause extensive damage in commercial forestry. Hunters as well as forestry students had first-hand knowledge about illegal hunting of lynx. The proportion of hunters admitting to having poached lynx themselves was 10% with the proportion of repeated illegal kills made by the same person increasing between 2001 and 2015. Population modelling suggested that at least 25% of the population might be poached annually, sufficient to restrict population growth and further expansion of lynx distribution.     

Is the Natura 2000 network sufficient for conservation of butterfly diversity? A case study in Slovenia

Slovenia has one of the most extensive Natura 2000 networks in Europe with 259 SAC’s covering 31.4% of the country. To determine how well does the current network cover the areas of high butterfly diversity and/or aggregation of the butterfly species of conservation concern, the data from the recent survey for a distribution atlas were used. Altogether 99,423 records of 173 species collated after 1979 were used. The data distribution is slightly biased towards SAC’s, with 44.8% of localities within them, most likely due to sparsely sampled urban areas and intensive farmland areas which are found only outside SAC’s. The diversity and distribution of red listed species was evaluated at a 5 × 5 km grid square level. Additionally the importance of the size of the SAC’s was compared to their butterfly species diversity. In general the high diversity areas also hold the largest aggregation of red listed species with core areas concentrated in SW Slovenia. The SAC’s cover majority of areas with high diversity and the distribution of all but one threatened butterfly species. That species is Colias myrmidone, which is now considered extinct in Slovenia with no records after 1993. The most prominent areas with high conservation value in Slovenia not included in the SAC’s network are the Koro?ka region, Gori?ka Brda region, lower Sava River valley and Slovenske Gorice region. The butterfly diversity in small SAC’s is relatively high with increases in size only gradually increasing the species numbers, thus emphasizing the importance and conservation value of small SAC’s for sustaining high butterfly diversity in Slovenia.     

Is the Iberian lacewing Chrysopa regalis a semivoltine species?

ABSTRACT.

• 1 Adults of the lacewing Chrysopa regalis Navás were caught in north Spain, Huesca province, Aragon.
• 2 Their progeny reared in the laboratory under short- and long-day light conditions at 20°C, entered a long diapause as prepupae within the cocoon.
• 3 Transferred outdoors after spinning up, only a few (12%) became active again in the following spring, whereas the rest remained in diapause for one more year and waited for the end of the second spring to resume their morphogenetic development. Thus most of the studied strain exhibited a 2–year life cycle. This semivoltine strategy is new to chrysopid biology.
• 4 The predaceous larval phase did not exceed 3% of the total individual lifespan, though the duration of the free-living larval instars averaged 19.9±1.1 (SD) days.
• 5 During the extended diapause, weight loss was very small, no more than 6.6% of the initial weight, 16.9±2.7 (SD) mg, at the end of diapause, and 8.8% at the time of pupal ecdysis.

     

Human–felid conflict as a further handicap to the conservation of the critically endangered Iberian lynx

Most studies on felid depredation of livestock have focused on big cats, and little attention has been paid to this type of conflict in smaller species. The medium-sized Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is not thought to be affected by conflict with humans. However, parallel to an increase in the range of the Iberian lynx in Andújar-Cardeña, an increased incidence of Iberian lynx attacks on livestock has been recorded. A 6-year overview of Iberian lynx predation on livestock in this population shows a total of 40 attacks involving 716 kills (31 attacks on poultry and nine on sheep). Although the majority of these attacks (78 %) were carried out against poultry, sheep depredation resulted in higher economic losses, mainly in extensive flocks (4.6 times more than semi-intensive flocks). An effective compensation program has been implemented in order to mitigate the consequences of the human–lynx conflict in this area. Given that this sort of conflict could become an acute impediment to future conservation of the most endangered felid, managers should anticipate and prevent the potential conflicts that could arise as Iberian lynx colonizes more developed areas.     

Is phylogeography helpful for invasive species risk assessment? The case study of the bark beetle genus Dendroctonus

Despite evidence that conspecific lineages may display different climatic tolerances, most invasion risk assessment tools are calibrated without considering phylogeographic information. This study aims to investigate the existence of intraspecific niche divergence within a group of insect pests and to explore how the inclusion of phylogeographic information into species distribution models may alter the estimation of the potential distribution of a species. We studied North American bark beetles belonging to the genus Dendroctonus, a group of pests of conifers that are listed as quarantine species in numerous countries. Most Dendroctonus species exhibit strong genetic divergence that appears to be geographically structured and shaped by historical events and biotic factors. We modeled all lineage distributions within five species, using MaxEnt and Boosted Regression Trees, and compared the results with the models fitted at the species scale. Multivariate analysis and niche similarity and equivalency tests were additionally performed to investigate the existence and magnitude of climatic niche divergence between conspecific lineages. We also tested the ability of lineage‐based models to predict the region invaded by D. valens in China. Conspecific lineages showed a climatic niche more similar than expected by chance, but displayed different climatic envelopes in their native range and, consequently, different estimates of potential distributions. We also observed that classical models calibrated using the entire range of the species could potentially under‐ or overestimate the potential range of the species when compared to a global prediction built by aggregating lineage‐based projections. This study showed that the invasive phylogeographic lineage of D. valens has invaded regions characterized by climatic conditions highly similar to those encountered in its native range suggesting that preadaptations to environment might have played a role in this invasion. This study highlights how our perception of the invasion risk of pests may be altered when integrating phylogeographic information.     

Epidemiology of Ancylostoma spp. in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in the Doñana National Park, south-west Spain

The epidemiology of Ancylostoma spp. was studied in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in the Do?ana National Park, south-west Spain. Faecal samples were collected throughout a complete annual cycle (August 1997 to September 1998). The overall egg prevalence of Ancylostoma spp. was 57.8%. The pattern of abundance of Ancylostoma spp. eggs in faeces was overdispersed. Juvenile lynx demonstrated a statistically higher prevalence and abundance of Ancylostoma spp. than in adults. These levels of egg output (maximum 21195 epg), as previously reported in free ranging large felid cubs, could be close to disease involvement. The potential pathogenicity of hookworms and the influence of individual and ecological factors on hookworm transmission in the Iberian lynx from the Do?ana National Park population are discussed.     

The white-backed woodpecker: umbrella species for forest conservation planning?

In northern Europe, a long history of land use has led to profound changes within forest ecosystems. The white-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos) is one of several specialised forest species whose populations have declined. Conservation management directed at this species’ habitat has made it a de facto umbrella species for conservation of the biodiversity associated with forests rich in deciduous trees and dead wood. We assessed empirically the value of the white-backed woodpecker as an indicator and umbrella species in central Sweden. Occurrence of the woodpecker in breeding bird atlas squares (5 × 5 km²) indicated high species richness of forest birds, particularly species of special conservation concern, which included on average 13% more species in squares with than without the woodpecker. The number of red-listed cryptogam species expected to benefit from conservation actions directed at white-backed woodpecker habitats was higher in squares where the woodpecker bred compared to where is was absent. However, no such pattern was found for red-listed beetles, a group with very few records in the studied squares. White-backed woodpecker occurrence was positively associated with the current area of deciduous and mixed forest of high conservation value. Considering its indicator value, its specialised habitat requirements and its potential as a communication tool, using the white-backed woodpecker as an umbrella species may provide a coarse filter for the conservation of several other deciduous forest species. However, focusing solely on white-backed woodpecker habitat may not provide for the conservation of all such species, which stresses the need for a suite of complementary planning approaches.     

Estimation of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) population in the Do?ana area, SW Spain, using capture�Crecapture analysis of camera-trapping data

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) has a highly restricted geographic distribution, limited even within the Iberian Peninsula. The last national survey reported less than 200 remaining individuals, distributed in two isolated areas??Andújar-Cardeña and Doñana??and in consequence, the Iberian lynx was listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as ??Critically Endangered??. In this study, we estimate the Iberian lynx population size in the Doñana area using capture?Crecapture analysis of camera-trapping data. A model with different capture probability for each individual (M_h) yielded an estimate of 26 Iberian lynxes (SE?=?5.26) more than 1 year old. It is considered that a small slant in the estimation of the number of individuals could exist due to the presence of dispersers inside the study area that were not detected. Our study shows: (1) a reduction in number since the 1980s (45 individuals), and falling below the theoretical threshold of genetic viability, (2) changes in the species?? spatial distribution in this area, and (3) as for other carnivore species, photographic capture?Crecapture methods are applicable for estimating the size of Iberian lynx populations     

ORIGINAL ARTICLE: Are small sedentary species affected by habitat fragmentation? Local vs. landscape factors predicting species richness and composition of land molluscs in Swedish conservation forests

Aim To investigate the relative role of local versus landscape factors for local species diversity of snails and slugs in conservation forests. In landscapes with small, isolated patches of semi‐natural habitats, many species that require large habitat areas have disappeared or are threatened. We asked whether small sedentary taxa that depend on local conditions, such as molluscs, are affected if total habitat area decreases in the landscape. Location Temperate broadleaved and oak‐rich forest in southern Sweden. Methods We sampled molluscs in 25 small conservation forests that are well‐spaced out over a large region. In each forest, sampling was conducted in two plots, each of 1 ha, separated by about 25–100 m. Factors potentially influencing local diversity of molluscs were measured in the plots and in the surrounding landscape at different scales (in space and time) and were analysed by stepwise multiple regression and ordination (PCA and NMS). Results We recorded 53 species, and mean species richness per forest (plots pooled) was 22.6. The pH of the plant litter predicted both species richness and composition; other local (plot) factors of lower importance were canopy openness, stony ground and tree species. The area of conservation forest (woodland key habitat) within 10 km of plots was positively associated with species richness, and was also related to species composition. Openness of the landscape (agriculture) was a negative factor, but historical plot openness (1938–59) seemed to be unimportant. In addition, climate/topography (temperature and altitude) also predicted species composition of the sites. Main conclusions We rejected the hypothesis that microhabitat factors alone, or mainly, determine local species richness and composition of land molluscs. These representatives of small, sedentary organisms seem to be substantially influenced by the surrounding landscape, which should be considered in conservation work and in plans for the protection of forest biodiversity.     

The end of the adaptive landscape metaphor?

The concepts of adaptive/fitness landscapes and adaptive peaks are a central part of much of contemporary evolutionary biology; the concepts are introduced in introductory texts, developed in more detail in graduate-level treatments, and are used extensively in papers published in the major journals in the field. The appeal of visualizing the process of evolution in terms of the movement of populations on such landscapes is very strong; as one becomes familiar with the metaphor, one often develops the feeling that it is possible to gain deep insights into evolution by thinking about the movement of populations on landscapes consisting of adaptive valleys and peaks. But, since Wright first introduced the metaphor in 1932, the metaphor has been the subject of persistent confusion, from equivocation over just what the features of the landscape are meant to represent to how we ought to expect the landscapes to look. Recent advances—conceptual, empirical, and computational—have pointed towards the inadequacy and indeed incoherence of the landscapes as usually pictured. I argue that attempts to reform the metaphor are misguided; it is time to give up the pictorial metaphor of the landscape entirely and rely instead on the results of formal modeling, however difficult such results are to understand in ‘intuitive’ terms.

Is orchid species richness and abundance related to the conservation status of oak forest?

The response of organisms to anthropogenic or natural modification of the environment is one of the most important questions in conservation biology and ecological theory. In spite of the fact that orchids are one of the most studied groups of plants, little information exists regarding their response to habitat alteration. The few existing studies are biased toward European orchid species and no consensus exists with regard to the response of orchids to human and natural disturbance. In this study, we sampled 30 transects (0.1 ha each) of oak forest located in Morelos, Central Mexico, and measured 13 variables related to forest aging and stump abundance, and six variables of orchid species richness and abundance. Neither abundance nor the richness and specific abundance of orchid genus or species were related to timber extraction. The abundance of dead standing trees in the forest, a surrogate variable of forest age, was positively related to abundance of orchids of the genus Malaxis, orchid richness and orchid abundance. This finding suggests that the conservation of all facets of the studied forest orchid community is dependent on natural processes (such as self-thinning) and the maintenance of older areas of the forest, and concurs with previous studies that suggest that natural disturbance is a key process for orchid survival.     

Is use of translocation for the conservation of subpopulations of oribi Ourebia ourebi (Zimmermann) effective? A case study

In South Africa, the oribi, Ourebia ourebi is an endangered small antelope that requires conservation management and intervention to prevent their extinction. Use of translocation for the conservation of subpopulations facing local extinction in the wild has been proposed. In this study, fifteen oribi from threatened populations were captured and released (November 2004) on a private game reserve in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Radio telemetry was used to monitor the dispersal and survival of translocated oribi. Only one death occurred during that period. All other released oribi survived, and most remained in close proximity of the release site for more than a year postrelease. Reproduction also occurred. This suggests that, translocation could be a viable option for conserving wild populations of oribi, assuming that other factors, such as availability of suitable grassland habitat and that poaching has been curtailed, are met.     

Is the originality of a species measurable?

In this paper, we introduce the concept of 'originality of a species within a set' in order to indicate the average rarity of all the features belonging to this species. Using a phylogenetic tree of 70 species of New World terrestrial Carnivora, we suggest measuring the originality by a probability distribution. This maximizes the expected number of features shared by two species randomly drawn from the set. By using this new index, we take account of branch lengths whereas current indices of originality focus on tree topology. As a supplement to Nee and May's optimizing algorithm, we find that originality must be one of the criteria used in conservation planning.     

The shape of things to come in the study of the origin of species?

Perhaps Darwin would agree that speciation is no longer the mystery of mysteries that it used to be. It is now generally accepted that evolution by natural selection can contribute to ecological adaptation, resulting in the evolution of reproductive barriers and, hence, to the evolution of new species (Schluter & Conte 2009 ; Meyer 2011 ; Nosil 2012 ). From genes that encode silencing proteins that cause infertility in hybrid mice (Mihola et al. 2009 ), to segregation distorters linked to speciation in fruit flies (Phadnis & Orr 2009 ), or pollinator‐mediated selection on flower colour alleles driving reinforcement in Texan wildflowers (Hopkins & Rausher 2012 ), characterization of the genes that drive speciation is providing clues to the origin of species (Nosil & Schluter 2011 ). It is becoming apparent that, while recent work continues to overturn historical ideas about sympatric speciation (e.g. Barluenga et al. 2006 ), ecological circumstances strongly influence patterns of genomic divergence, and ultimately the establishment of reproductive isolation when gene flow is present (Elmer & Meyer 2011 ). Less clear, however, are the genetic mechanisms that cause speciation, particularly when ongoing gene flow is occurring. Now, in this issue, Franchini et al. ( 2014 ) employ a classic genetic mapping approach augmented with new genomic tools to elucidate the genomic architecture of ecologically divergent body shapes in a pair of sympatric crater lake cichlid fishes. From over 450 segregating SNPs in an F2 cross, 72 SNPs were linked to 11 QTL associated with external morphology measured by means of traditional and geometric morphometrics. Annotation of two highly supported QTL further pointed to genes that might contribute to ecological divergence in body shape in Midas cichlids, overall supporting the hypothesis that genomic regions of large phenotypic effect may be contributing to early‐stage divergence in Midas cichlids.