Applying remote sensing techniques to monitor shifting wetland vegetation: A case study of Danshui River estuary mangrove communities,Taiwan

The purpose of this study is to apply different remote sensing techniques to monitor shifting mangrove vegetation in the Danshui River estuary in Taipei, Taiwan, in order to evaluate a long-term wetland conservation strategy compromising between comprehensive wetland ecosystem management and urban development. In the Danshui estuary, mangrove dominated by Kandelia candel is the major vegetation, and a large area of marsh with freshwater grasses has been protected in three reserves along the river shore. This study applied satellite imagery from different remote sensors of various resolutions for spectral analysis in order to compare shifting wetland vegetation communities at different times. A two-stage analytical process was used for extracting vegetation area and types. In the first-stage, a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was adopted to analyze SPOT, Landsat, and QuickBird imagery to obtain the spatial distribution of vegetation covers. In the second stage, a maximum likelihood classification (MLC) program was used to classify mangrove and non-mangrove areas. The results indicated that the spatial distribution of mangroves expanded 15.18 and 40 ha in two monitoring sites in 10 years, demonstrating the success of establishing reserves for protecting mangrove habitats. The analytical results also indicated that satellite imagery can easily discern the difference in characteristics between imagery of mangrove and other vegetation types, and that the logistical disadvantages of monitoring long-term vegetation community changes as well as evaluating an inaccessible area may be overcome by applying remote sensing techniques.     

Mycorrhizal suppression alters plant productivity and forb establishment in a grass-dominated prairie restoration

A fundamental goal of restoration is the re-establishment of plant diversity representative of native vegetation. However, many prairie restorations or Conservation Reserve Program sites have been seeded with warm-season grasses, leading to grass-dominated, low-diversity restorations not representative of native grasslands. These dominant grasses are strongly mycotrophic, while many subordinate forb species appear to be less dependent on mycorrhizal symbiosis. Therefore, manipulating arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may be useful in promoting establishment and growth of forb species in grass-dominated prairie restorations. To assess the potential role of mycorrhizae in affecting the productivity and community composition of restored tallgrass prairie, we conducted a 4-year field experiment on an 8-year-old grassland restoration at the Konza Prairie in northeastern Kansas, USA. At the initiation of our study, seeds of 12 forb species varying in degree of mycorrhizal dependence were added to established grass-dominated plots. Replicate plots were treated bi-weekly with a soil drench of fungicide (Topsin-M^®) over four growing seasons and compared to non-treated control plots to assess the role of AMF in affecting plant species composition, productivity, leaf tissue quality, and diversity in restored tallgrass prairie. Topsin applications successfully reduced mycorrhizal colonization of grass roots to approximately 60–80% relative to roots in control plots. Four years of mycorrhizal suppression reduced productivity of the dominant grasses and increased plant species richness and diversity. These results highlight the importance of mycorrhizae as mediators of plant productivity and community dynamics in restored tallgrass prairie and indicate that temporarily suppressing AMF decreases productivity of the dominant C4 grasses and allows for establishment of seeded forb species.     

The spread of grass-dominated habitats in Turkey and surrounding areas during the Cenozoic: Phytolith evidence

The arrival of hipparionine horses in the eastern Mediterranean region around 11 Ma was traditionally thought to mark the simultaneous westward expansion of savanna vegetation across Eurasia. However, recent paleoecological reconstructions based on tooth wear, carbon isotopes, and functional morphology indicate that grasses played a minor role in Late Miocene ecosystems of the eastern Mediterranean, which were more likely dry woodlands or forests. The scarcity of grass macrofossils and pollen in Miocene floras of Europe and Asia Minor has been used to support this interpretation. Based on the combined evidence, it has therefore been suggested that Late Miocene ungulate faunal change in the eastern Mediterranean signals increased aridity and landscape openness, but not necessarily the development of grass-dominated habitats.

To shed new light on the Miocene evolution of eastern Mediterranean ecosystems, we used phytolith assemblages preserved in direct association with faunas as a proxy for paleovegetation structure (grassland vs. forest). We extracted phytoliths and other biogenic silica from sediment samples from well-known Early to Late Miocene ( 20–7 Ma) faunal localities in Greece, Turkey, and Iran. In addition, a Middle Eocene sample from Turkey yielded phytoliths and served as a baseline comparison for vegetation inference.

Phytolith analysis showed that the Middle Eocene assemblage consists of abundant grass phytoliths (grass silica short cells) interpreted as deriving from bambusoid grasses, as well as diverse forest indicator phytoliths from dicotyledonous angiosperms and palms, pointing to the presence of a woodland or forest with abundant bamboos. In contrast, the Miocene assemblages are dominated by diverse silica short cells typical of pooid open-habitat grasses. Forest indicator phytoliths are also present, but are rare in the Late Miocene (9–7 Ma) assemblages. Our analysis of the Miocene grass community composition is consistent with evidence from stable carbon isotopes from paleosols and ungulate tooth enamel, showing that C₄ grasses were rare in the Mediterranean throughout the Miocene. These data indicate that relatively open habitats had become common in Turkey and surrounding areas by at least the Early Miocene ( 20 Ma), > 7 million years before hipparionine horses reached Europe and arid conditions ensued, as judged by faunal data.     

Is there a temporal niche separation in the leaf phenology of savanna trees and grasses?

Aim It has been proposed that, in tropical savannas, trees deploy their leaves earlier in the growing season and grasses deploy their leaves later. This hypothesis implies a mechanism that facilitates the coexistence of trees and grasses in savannas. If true, this hypothesis would also allow algorithms to use differences in the phenological timing of grass and tree leaves to partition the relative contribution of grasses and trees to net primary production. In this study we examine whether a temporal niche separation between grasses and trees exists in savanna. Location A semi‐arid, subtropical savanna, Kruger National Park, South Africa. Methods We use a multi‐spectral camera to track through an entire growing season the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of individual canopies of grasses and trees at eight sites arranged along a precipitation and temperature gradient. Results Among trees, we identified two distinct phenological syndromes: an early flushing syndrome and a late‐flushing syndrome. Leaf flush in the tree strategies appears to pre‐empt rainfall, whereas grass leaf flush follows the rain. The growing season of trees is 20 (late‐flushing trees) to 27 (early flushing trees) days longer than that of the grasses. Main conclusions We show that grasses and trees have different leaf deployment strategies. Trees deployed leaves at lower temperatures than grasses and retained them for longer at the end of the growing season. The timing of the increase in NDVI is, however, similar between grasses and late‐flushing trees and this complicates the separation of grass and tree signals from multi‐spectral satellite imagery.     

祁连山不同植被类型的物候变化及其对气候的响应

基于1982—2006年GIMMS NDVI和2000—2014年MODIS NDVI遥感数据,利用double logistic拟合方法提取了1982—2014年祁连山区不同植被的生长季始期、生长季末期和生长季长度3个重要的物候参数,分析了不同植被物候期的时间变化趋势、空间分异特征及对气候因子的响应。结果表明:(1)祁连山区不同植被的生长季始期和生长季末期随年际变化表现出波动提前或推迟,其中沼泽植被的变化波动最大;草甸植被、灌丛植被、阔叶林植被和栽培植被生长季长度出现延长趋势;(2)祁连山区植被生长季始期集中在5月初,其中阔叶林植被生长季开始最早,荒漠植被生长季开始最晚,植被生长季末期集中在9月,栽培植被生长季结束较早,荒漠植被、沼泽植被生长季结束较晚,植被生长季长度集中在110—140 d,其中阔叶林植被、针叶林植被生长季长度较长,而荒漠植被、高山植被生长季长度较短;(3)祁连山植被物候期变化趋势的空间分布表明植被生长季始期、生长季末期主要表现为提前不明显和推迟不明显,生长季长度主要表现为缩短不明显和延长不明显;(4)物候要素与气候要素相关性表明前期温度的积累有利于植被的开始生长,但当年3月的降水量对植被生长季始期同样有重要作用,不同植被生长季末期与8月、9月温度相关性较大,而与10月、11月降水的相关性较大。     

Relationship between phenology and life form: a test with 25 Patagonian species

Soil resource availability varies across seasons and soil layers. Both plant phenology, i.e. the sequence of growth and developmental changes along the year, and plant life form, i.e. the life cycle, distribution of roots, and longevity of leaves, determine the ability to use resources. The phenological heterogeneity within and among life forms of a single community may reveal key features of community structure, such as temporal niche segregation within life forms or convergence of phenological and life form patterns. We described the phenological patterns of most species of a Patagonian steppe composed of four life forms: perennial grasses, shrubs, annual herbs, and perennial herbs. By applying standard multivariate analysis techniques, we classified the species into three phenological groups and analysed the variation among groups and life forms. One phenological group, composed exclusively by grasses, had higher autumn-winter phenological activity than the other two groups. The non-grass groups differed in the date of beginning of vegetative growth and ending of the reproductive growth, one of the groups being earlier than the other. However, the three groups coincided at the phenophase of floral buds and open flowers, which occurred around the time of the maximum rate of phenological change and maximum fraction of photosynthetically active radiation being intercepted by the entire community. Phenological groups and life forms only partially overlapped: grasses and annual herbs belonged to individual phenological groups, whereas shrubs and perennial herbs spread across two groups. Thus, some life forms of the community were strictly related to a phenological behaviour, whereas other showed high temporal niche segregation. Simultaneously, diverse life forms converged into similar phenological patterns.     

Interannual climate variability mediates changes in carbon and nitrogen pools caused by annual grass invasion in a semiarid shrubland

Exotic plant invasions alter ecosystem properties and threaten ecosystem functions globally. Interannual climate variability (ICV) influences both plant community composition (PCC) and soil properties, and interactions between ICV and PCC may influence nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) pools. We asked how ICV and non-native annual grass invasion covary to influence soil and plant N and C in a semiarid shrubland undergoing widespread ecosystem transformation due to invasions and altered fire regimes. We sampled four progressive stages of annual grass invasion at 20 sites across a large (25,000 km²) landscape for plant community composition, plant tissue N and C, and soil total N and C in 2013 and 2016, which followed 2 years of dry and wet conditions, respectively. Multivariate analyses and ANOVAs showed that in invasion stages where native shrub and perennial grass and forb communities were replaced by annual grass-dominated communities, the ecosystem lost more soil N and C in wet years. Path analysis showed that high water availability led to higher herbaceous cover in all invasion stages. In stages with native shrubs and perennial grasses, higher perennial grass cover was associated with increased soil C and N, while in annual-dominated stages, higher annual grass cover was associated with losses of soil C and N. Also, soil total C and C:N ratios were more homogeneous in annual-dominated invasion stages as indicated by within-site standard deviations. Loss of native shrubs and perennial grasses and forbs coupled with annual grass invasion may lead to long-term declines in soil N and C and hamper restoration efforts. Restoration strategies that use innovative techniques and novel species to address increasing temperatures and ICV and emphasize maintaining plant community structure—shrubs, grasses, and forbs—will allow sagebrush ecosystems to maintain C sequestration, soil fertility, and soil heterogeneity.     

Phenological analysis of grasses (Poaceae) as a support for the dissection of their pollen season in Perugia (Central Italy)

Grasses (Poaceae) pollen is a major cause for allergic diseases worldwide. Pollen monitoring in the atmosphere is of primary importance for symptoms interpretation and therapy planning. Microscopic pollen identification and counts do not allow the detection at species or genus level because of the stenopalynous nature of the family. Nevertheless, the assessment of the flowering phenology of different species would be important, because not all grass allergens are cross-reacting and allergic patients could be differentially sensitized. In this work, a phenological survey was carried out in five stations located on the urban territory of Perugia (Central Italy), from April to September 2015, recording the alternation between flowering phenophases of 19 grass species and estimating their contribution to the airborne pollen load of the area through the calculation of a Phenological Index. Moreover, pollen grains of the different species were collected and observed, confirming the impossibility to make a discrimination during microscope pollen counts. The prevailing grasses in terms of contribution to the pollen detection in the studied area resulted to be Dactylis glomerata and Lolium perenne during spring and early summer, and Cynodon dactylon during late summer. Data should be validated repeating the survey in successive years and possibly using biomolecular tools, but the obtained information could be relevant for diagnosis and treatment of grass pollen allergies.     

基于多种遥感植被指数、叶绿素荧光与CO2通量数据的温带针阔混交林物候特征对比分析

植被物候学作为研究植被与环境条件相互作用的科学,在全球气候变化的大背景下已成为国际热点研究领域,其中森林植被在调节全球碳平衡、维护全球气候稳定的过程中有着至关重要的作用。随着遥感技术的发展,多种遥感指数被应用到森林植被物候研究中,其中以MODIS NDVI和EVI应用最为广泛,而叶绿素荧光(SIF)作为植被光合作用的"探针"也被广泛应用于森林植被物候研究中。为了探究3种指数在森林植被物候研究中的差异与特性,本文以长白山温带红松阔叶林通量观测站为研究区域,采用模型拟合结合动态阈值法提取2007—2013森林物候特征参数,并使用通量数据(总初级生产力GPP)进行验证。结果表明:NDVI与EVI、SIF相比,表现为生长季开始时间与结束时间的明显提前和滞后,与GPP数据偏差较大,且夏季生长季峰期曲线形态过宽且平坦,无法较好反映生长季变化特征;EVI相较于NDVI有所改善,整体变化趋势与SIF、GPP基本吻合,但依然存在秋季衰减时间稍迟于SIF与GPP的问题;SIF虽然存在夏季骤降现象,但依然与GPP数据一致性最好,可以较好反映出森林植被季节变化特征。SIF数据与植被光合作用的紧密关联使其在植被物候研究中具有优于植被指数的准确性,并随着遥感平台的增加和反演方法的改善,将会在多尺度、多类型的植被物候监测中发挥更加重要的作用。     

Vegetation recovery following extreme winter warming events in the sub-Arctic estimated using NDVI from remote sensing and handheld passive proximal sensors

Extreme winter warming events in the sub-Arctic have caused considerable vegetation damage due to rapid changes in temperature and loss of snow cover. The frequency of extreme weather is expected to increase due to climate change thereby increasing the potential for recurring vegetation damage in Arctic regions. Here we present data on vegetation recovery from one such natural event and multiple experimental simulations in the sub-Arctic using remote sensing, handheld passive proximal sensors and ground surveys.Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) recovered fast (2 years), from the 26% decline following one natural extreme winter warming event. Recovery was associated with declines in dead Empetrum nigrum (dominant dwarf shrub) from ground surveys. However, E. nigrum healthy leaf NDVI was also reduced (16%) following this winter warming event in experimental plots (both control and treatments), suggesting that non-obvious plant damage (i.e., physiological stress) had occurred in addition to the dead E. nigrum shoots that was considered responsible for the regional 26% NDVI decline. Plot and leaf level NDVI provided useful additional information that could not be obtained from vegetation surveys and regional remote sensing (MODIS) alone.The major damage of an extreme winter warming event appears to be relatively transitory. However, potential knock-on effects on higher trophic levels (e.g., rodents, reindeer, and bear) could be unpredictable and large. Repeated warming events year after year, which can be expected under winter climate warming, could result in damage that may take much longer to recover.     

Quantitative effects of vegetation cover on wind erosion and soil nutrient loss in a desert grassland of southern New Mexico,USA

Wind is a key abiotic factor that influences the dynamics of arid and semiarid systems. We investigated two basic relationships on vegetation manipulation (grass cover reduction) plots at the Jornada Experimental Range in southern New Mexico: (1) wind erosion rates (horizontal mass flux and dust emission) versus vegetative cover, and (2) nutrient loss versus vegetative cover. The results indicate that wind erosion rates and nutrient loss by dust emission are strongly affected by plant cover; however, the importance of shrubs and grasses in reducing dust flux may not be equal. The dramatic increase of wind erosion between 75% grass cover reduction and 100% grass cover reduction suggests that sparsely distributed mesquites are relatively ineffective at reducing wind erosion and nutrient loss compared to grasses. Comparisons of nutrients between surface soils and wind blown dust indicate that aeolian transport is a major cause for the loss of soil nutrients in susceptible environments. We found that increased aeolian flux over three windy seasons (March 2004–July 2006) removed up to 25% of total organic carbon (TOC) and total nitrogen (TN) from the top 5 cm of soil, and about 60% of TOC and TN loss occurred in the first windy season (March–July 2004). The balance between net loss of nutrients by aeolian processes and the addition of nutrients by biotic processes changed from negative (net loss) to positive (net accumulation) between 50% grass cover reduction and 25% grass cover reduction. The estimated lifetime of surface soil TOC and TN of about 10 years on the plot with 100% grass cover reduction indicates that impacts of wind erosion on soil resources can occur on very short timescales.     

Ecosystem functional units characterized by satellite observed phenology and productivity gradients: A case study for Europe

The present study demonstrates remote sensing derived phenological and productivity indicators of ecosystem functional dynamism. The indices were derived from SPOT VEGETATION NDVI data on 1 km spatial resolution across the pan-European continent using the Phenolo approach. The phenological and productivity indices explained 78% of the variance in the European ecosystem gradient measured by bio-climatic zones. Along this gradient climatic predictors could only explain 57% of the variance in the satellite metrics. Reclassification of the bio-climatic zones into phenology and productivity related ecosystem functional units (EFUs) selected five metrics related to the cyclic and permanent fraction of productivity, to the background, to the growing season start and the timing of the maximum NDVI value. Along the EFU gradient the climatic predictors explained over 90% of the variance of the remote sensing variables, 30% more than along the bio-climatic gradient. The EFUs showed strong correspondence to 14 land-cover types in Europe and the selected remote sensing metrics explained 86% of the variation in the land-cover classes. These results show that remote sensing derived parameters have tremendous potential for the quantification of ecosystem functional dynamism. Phenological and productivity metrics offer an indicator system for ecosystems that climatic indicators alone cannot manifest. Their potential to monitor the spatial pattern, status and inter-annual variability of ecosystems and vegetation cover can deliver reference status information for future assessments of the impacts of human or climate change induced ecosystem changes.     

Sun‐induced fluorescence – a new probe of photosynthesis: First maps from the imaging spectrometer HyPlant

Variations in photosynthesis still cause substantial uncertainties in predicting photosynthetic CO₂ uptake rates and monitoring plant stress. Changes in actual photosynthesis that are not related to greenness of vegetation are difficult to measure by reflectance based optical remote sensing techniques. Several activities are underway to evaluate the sun‐induced fluorescence signal on the ground and on a coarse spatial scale using space‐borne imaging spectrometers. Intermediate‐scale observations using airborne‐based imaging spectroscopy, which are critical to bridge the existing gap between small‐scale field studies and global observations, are still insufficient. Here we present the first validated maps of sun‐induced fluorescence in that critical, intermediate spatial resolution, employing the novel airborne imaging spectrometer HyPlant. HyPlant has an unprecedented spectral resolution, which allows for the first time quantifying sun‐induced fluorescence fluxes in physical units according to the Fraunhofer Line Depth Principle that exploits solar and atmospheric absorption bands. Maps of sun‐induced fluorescence show a large spatial variability between different vegetation types, which complement classical remote sensing approaches. Different crop types largely differ in emitting fluorescence that additionally changes within the seasonal cycle and thus may be related to the seasonal activation and deactivation of the photosynthetic machinery. We argue that sun‐induced fluorescence emission is related to two processes: (i) the total absorbed radiation by photosynthetically active chlorophyll; and (ii) the functional status of actual photosynthesis and vegetation stress.     

A systematic review of vegetation phenology in Africa

The study of vegetation phenology is important because it is a sensitive indicator of climate changes and it regulates carbon, energy and water fluxes between the land and atmosphere. Africa, which has 17% of the global forest cover, contributes significantly to the global carbon budget and has been identified as potentially highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. In spite of this, very little is known about vegetation phenology across Africa and the factors regulating vegetation growth and dynamics. Hence, this review aimed to provide a synthesis of studies of related Africa's vegetation phenology and classify them based on the methods and techniques used in order to identify major research gaps. Significant increases in the number of phenological studies in the last decade were observed, with over 70% of studies adopting a satellite-based remote sensing approach to monitor vegetation phenology. Whereas ground based studies that provide detailed characterisation of vegetation phenological development, occurred rarely in the continent. Similarly, less than 14% of satellite-based remote sensing studies evaluated vegetation phenology at the continental scale using coarse spatial resolution datasets. Even more evident was the lack of research focusing on the impacts of climate change on vegetation phenology. Consequently, given the importance and the uniqueness of both methods of phenological assessment, there is need for more ground-based studies to enable greater understanding of phenology at the species level. Likewise, finer spatial resolution satellite sensor data for regional phenological assessment is required, with a greater focus on the relationship between climate change and vegetation phenological changes. This would contribute greatly to debates over climate change impacts and, most importantly, climate change mitigation strategies.     

Beyond Precipitation: Physiographic Gradients Dictate the Relative Importance of Environmental Drivers on Savanna Vegetation

Background

Understanding the drivers of large-scale vegetation change is critical to managing landscapes and key to predicting how projected climate and land use changes will affect regional vegetation patterns. This study aimed to improve our understanding of the role, magnitude and spatial distribution of the key environmental factors driving vegetation change in southern African savanna, and how they vary across physiographic gradients.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We applied Dynamic Factor Analysis (DFA), a multivariate times series dimension reduction technique to ten years of monthly remote sensing data (MODIS-derived normalized difference vegetation index, NDVI) and a suite of environmental covariates: precipitation, mean and maximum temperature, soil moisture, relative humidity, fire and potential evapotranspiration. Monthly NDVI was described by cyclic seasonal variation with distinct spatiotemporal patterns in different physiographic regions. Results support existing work emphasizing the importance of precipitation, soil moisture and fire on NDVI, but also reveal overlooked effects of temperature and evapotranspiration, particularly in regions with higher mean annual precipitation. Critically, spatial distributions of the weights of environmental covariates point to a transition in the importance of precipitation and soil moisture (strongest in grass-dominated regions with precipitation<750 mm) to fire, potential evapotranspiration, and temperature (strongest in tree-dominated regions with precipitation>950 mm).

Conclusions/Significance

We quantified the combined spatiotemporal effects of an available suite of environmental drivers on NDVI across a large and diverse savanna region. The analysis supports known drivers of savanna vegetation but also uncovers important roles of temperature and evapotranspiration. Results highlight the utility of applying the DFA approach to remote sensing products for regional analyses of landscape change in the context of global environmental change. With the dramatic increase in global change research, this methodology augurs well for further development and application of spatially explicit time series modeling to studies at the intersection of ecology and remote sensing.     

Adaptive strategies of perennial grasses in South American savannas

Abstract. Morpho-fimctional features of perennial grasses in South American savannas are considered as adaptive strategies to cope with stress and disturbance factors of savanna environments. The tussock growth form, annual patterns of vegetative growth and reproductive phenology, allocation of carbon and nutrients, and accumulation of standing dead phytomass at the end of the dry season, are discussed in relation to water economy, resistance to drought, photosynthetic rates, growth rhythms, regrowth after drought and fire, seasonal translocation of critical nutrients and carbohydrates, and the total nutrient budget of the grass layer. Different strategies combining various morphological patterns, phenological alternatives and mechanisms for resisting drought and fire exist within the grass flora of each savanna community. The lack of adaptive responses to grazing by large herbivores is a major distinction from African savanna grasses. Many African grasses, either introduced in pastures or colonizing disturbed savannas, do show positive responses to defoliation, including compensatory growth and enhanced photosynthetic rates. Some guidelines for further research are suggested in order to disclose the mechanisms underlying this different behaviour of native and introduced savanna grasses.     

Home Range Use and Movement Patterns of Non-Native Feral Goats in a Tropical Island Montane Dry Landscape

Advances in wildlife telemetry and remote sensing technology facilitate studies of broad-scale movements of ungulates in relation to phenological shifts in vegetation. In tropical island dry landscapes, home range use and movements of non-native feral goats (Capra hircus) are largely unknown, yet this information is important to help guide the conservation and restoration of some of the world’s most critically endangered ecosystems. We hypothesized that feral goats would respond to resource pulses in vegetation by traveling to areas of recent green-up. To address this hypothesis, we fitted six male and seven female feral goats with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars equipped with an Argos satellite upload link to examine goat movements in relation to the plant phenology using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Movement patterns of 50% of males and 40% of females suggested conditional movement between non-overlapping home ranges throughout the year. A shift in NDVI values corresponded with movement between primary and secondary ranges of goats that exhibited long-distance movement, suggesting that vegetation phenology as captured by NDVI is a good indicator of the habitat and movement patterns of feral goats in tropical island dry landscapes. In the context of conservation and restoration of tropical island landscapes, the results of our study identify how non-native feral goats use resources across a broad landscape to sustain their populations and facilitate invasion of native plant communities.     

Use of monocharacteristic growth forms and phenological phases to describe and differentiate plant communities in Mediterranean-type ecosystems

The ecomorphological and phenological study was carried out within aMediterranean vegetation context, in Quercus suberforests,which have been substituted by shrublands of Cistus sppwithin two Natural Parks in the south of the Iberian Peninsula. Theecomorphological characters that show meaningful differences between both typesof vegetation are: location of renewal buds, spinescence, stratification,maximum height of the vegetation, organs periodically shed, leaf consistency,leaf tomentosity, leaf size, and life duration of leaves, plant duration,vegetative regeneration after fire, main vegetative growth season, mainflowering season and fruit type. The phenological phases also help to discernbetween forest and shrubland, specially flower bud formation, fruiting, seeddispersal, and the existence of brachyblast vegetative growth and brachyblastleaf shedding. We propose three new indexes based on phenological phases:active period of the species (APS), active period of thecommunity (APC) and reproductive/vegetative activity of thespecies (RVA). The results of their application, in combination with theecomorphological characters, have proved promising in describing vegetation andin clearly differentiating communities. The results also show the existence ofdifferent ecomorphological groups of plants at community level, with consequentecological, historical, phytocoenological and adaptive implications     

Seasonal distribution of pollen in the atmosphere of melbourne: an airborne pollen calendar

Environmental monitoring of pollen grains in the atmosphere of Melbourne has been achieved using Burkard volumetric traps. Twenty-two families of flowering plants and confiers were identified in the pollen counts. About 62% of these pollen grains belonged to trees, 20% to grasses and 9% to herbs and weedy plants. During spring and summer, the atmosphere contained about 70% of the total annual pollen count. Tree pollen, predominantly elm and cypress, occurred abundantly in late winter and spring, with grass pollen predominantly in spring and early summer. These three types of pollen grains occurred in significant amounts, together accounting for more than 60% of the total annual catch. A seasonal incidence chart (pollen calendar) for Melbourne based on 2 years observation has been constructed. This pollen calendar is useful in identifying sources of allergies against particular seasonal airborne pollen types. Comparison of the time of occurrence of a particular pollen type using the pollen calendar and the time of allergic symptoms, can lead to accurate diagnosis and preventive measures being taken. This study has confirmed that grass pollen is the major source of allergenic pollen in the external environment triggering hay fever and allergic asthma in spring and early summer in Melbourne, Australia.