Threats and opportunities for freshwater conservation under future land use change scenarios in the United States

Freshwater ecosystems provide vital resources for humans and support high levels of biodiversity, yet are severely threatened throughout the world. The expansion of human land uses, such as urban and crop cover, typically degrades water quality and reduces freshwater biodiversity, thereby jeopardizing both biodiversity and ecosystem services. Identifying and mitigating future threats to freshwater ecosystems requires forecasting where land use changes are most likely. Our goal was to evaluate the potential consequences of future land use on freshwater ecosystems in the coterminous United States by comparing alternative scenarios of land use change (2001–2051) with current patterns of freshwater biodiversity and water quality risk. Using an econometric model, each of our land use scenarios projected greater changes in watersheds of the eastern half of the country, where freshwater ecosystems already experience higher stress from human activities. Future urban expansion emerged as a major threat in regions with high freshwater biodiversity (e.g., the Southeast) or severe water quality problems (e.g., the Midwest). Our scenarios reflecting environmentally oriented policies had some positive effects. Subsidizing afforestation for carbon sequestration reduced crop cover and increased natural vegetation in areas that are currently stressed by low water quality, while discouraging urban sprawl diminished urban expansion in areas of high biodiversity. On the other hand, we found that increases in crop commodity prices could lead to increased agricultural threats in areas of high freshwater biodiversity. Our analyses illustrate the potential for policy changes and market factors to influence future land use trends in certain regions of the country, with important consequences for freshwater ecosystems. Successful conservation of aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services in the United States into the future will require attending to the potential threats and opportunities arising from policies and market changes affecting land use.     

Optimal conservation planning of multiple hydrological ecosystem services under land use and climate changes in Teshio river watershed,northernmost of Japan

Most anthropogenic activities impacted on water quality and quantity, and further impacted on ecosystem services (ESs) in watershed are related to land use and climate changes those may cause losses of ecosystem functions. Effective information regarding ESs and their optimal priority conservation planning responded to land use and climate changes provide useful support for diverse stakeholders in ESs planning, management and policies. This study integrated the approach of spatially explicit ESs (water yield, inorganic nutrient, organic nutrient and sediment retentions) by using hydrology and material flow model (Soil and Water Assessment Tools, SWAT model) into systematic conservation of hydrological ESs according to land use and climate changes in Teshio watershed located in the north of Hokkaido, Japan. We investigated the spatial patterns and the hotspots of ESs changes to determine the spatial pattern of changes in systematic conservation optimal area of ES protection in terms of ESs protection targets. Under the land use and climate change scenarios, the forest land use significantly affected on the water yield, sediment, organic-Nitrogen (N) and organic-Phosphorous (P) retentions. The agricultural land (paddy and farmland fields) impacted on the inorganic-N and inorganic-P retentions. We applied the systematic conservation model (MARXAN model) to optimize the area for management of hydrological ESs satisfied the protection targets (30% and 50% of potential maximum ESs values among all scenarios) in all and individual ecosystem services, respectively. The simulated results indicated that the areas of spatial optimal ESs protection for all hydrological ESs were totally different from those for individual ESs. For bundles of ESs, the optimal priority conservation areas concentrated in southwest, north, and southeast of this watershed, which are related to land use, topography and climate driving factors. These places could guarantee ESs sustainability from both environmental protection and agricultural development standpoints. The priority conservation area turned more compact under climate change because the increased precipitation and temperature increased ESs amount. For individual ESs, the optimal priority conservation areas of water yield, sediment retention and organic nutrient retention were traded off against those of inorganic nutrient retention (lower Jaccard's indexes and negative correlations of selection times). Especially, the negative correlation of selection times increased as the conservation target increased from 30% to 50%. The proposed approach provided useful information for assessing the responses of ESs and systematic conservation optimal planning to the land use and climate changes. The systematic conservation optimal areas of hydrological ESs provided an effective trade-off tool between environmental protection (sediment and organic nutrient retentions) and economic development (water yield and inorganic nutrient retention).     

Exploring local consequences of two land-use alternatives for the supply of urban ecosystem services in Stockholm year 2050

Ecosystem services (ESs) are gaining ground in urban policy as a key to attaining sustainable cities. However, strategic and land-use planners need operational and accessible tools to better understand the consequences of policy and planning measures. Based on a study of the City of Stockholm and its surrounding region, we argue that spatially explicit land-use mapping is a good base for modeling and visualizing the supply of urban ESs provided by different patterns of Service Providing Units. By adding more detailed characteristics of land use through the concept of Service Providing Elements (SPEs), and by assessing synergies and trade-offs between these attributes, implications for the supply of ESs at different scale levels could be identified and discussed. Detailed land-use mapping and ES modeling were applied to two future land-use alternatives. The supply of eight urban ESs was found to vary significantly between the two alternatives depending on the ratios of different SPEs, even within identical land-use classes. One of the land-use alternatives had significantly higher potential for food and energy provision, much higher air cooling and air quality regulation capacity especially in densely built areas, showed less surface sealing, and provided better conditions for mental recreation. The exception was supply of physical recreation opportunities, where the other land-use option had an advantage. These differences became more accentuated when we zoomed in on two local urban areas. Based on these findings, our main conclusion is that, in order to provide planning and policy-making with an adequate knowledge base, it is necessary to move beyond land-use classes, as defined by European data sets like Urban Atlas, and toward tools capable of capturing more detailed aspects of land use and its relations to the supply of urban ESs. This should be made a priority, especially in early stages of planning and policy formation, and also used to support development of urban by-laws, procurement arrangements, neighborhood and building certification, etc. The approaches used in the study can serve as a valid starting point for further development of such tools and methods compatible with planners’ ordinary working modes. However, to make such progress possible, the ecosystem service research community needs to step up to the challenge of delivering locally specific and useful data on how urban land-use links to ES supply, including synergies and trade-offs between different ESs.     

Spatio-temporal assessment of urbanization impacts on ecosystem services: Case study of Nanjing City,China

Rapid urbanization is a global phenomenon that has altered many ecosystems, causing a decline in many ecosystem services, generating ecological risks such as water shortages, air pollution, and soil pollution. Here, we present a conceptual framework quantifying how urbanization influences the ecosystem services in a typical city (Nanjing) of China. Between 2000 and 2010, we separated the city into three urbanization categories (developing urban, developed urban, and rural areas) and quantified the status of six critical ecosystem services (food supply, carbon sequestration, soil water storage, air pollution removal, habitat suitability, and recreation potential). Our results show that urbanization significantly impacted all ecosystem services, with detected changes in ecosystem services being spatially heterogeneous due to urban expansion and population mobility. Developed areas contained greater amounts of green infrastructure, which improved carbon storage and reduced air pollution. In contrast, the rapid expansion of urban and industrial land in developing urban areas led to lower food supply, carbon sequestration, soil water storage, and habitat suitability. The expansion of rural residential areas led to lower soil water storage, carbon sequestration, and food supply, while greater amounts of abandoned cropland resulted in increased carbon sequestration, but decreased food supply in rural areas. Analysis of the interactions between pairs of ecosystem services identified urbanization development problems, including abandoned cropland and the expansion of rural residential land. Lastly, we proposed four key urban planning measures to mitigate the loss of ecosystem services during rapid urbanization. Acquiring quantitative knowledge about how rapid urbanization drives changes to ecosystem changes may help guide sustainable urban planning with respect to ecosystem service use, urban development, and human welfare benefits.     

城市生态用地的空间结构及其生态系统服务动态演变——以常州市为例

生态用地是城市社会-经济-自然复合生态系统重要的组成部分,为城市提供多种显著的生态系统服务。应用遥感、地理信息系统技术和生态系统服务评估等方法,针对城市生态用地的空间结构与服务功能演变科学问题,通过对常州市区1991、1996、2001和2006年4个时段遥感图像的处理与比较分析,揭示了常州市区15a来城市空间景观格局的演变规律,评估了由城市生态用地改变所导致的生态系统服务的变化。研究结果表明,1991-2006年间,常州市区生态用地占市区面积的比例由89.2%降低至65.1%。1991-2001年,林地、农田和水体的面积都呈不同程度的下降趋势。2001-2006年,林地面积增加基本回到1996年水平。常州市区生态用地主要为城市提供了农林产品生产、气候调节、涵养水源、水土保持、生物多样性保护等生态系统服务。在过去15a间,由于城市化占用生态用地,常州市区生态用地生态系统服务的经济价值总体降低了19.3%。其中,农田的生态服务价值减少最大,减少了32.3%。研究结果表明,常州城市空间景观格局演变与生态系统服务变化之间存在着密切相关性,研究可为城市生态系统服务强化、城乡土地利用规划与管理、城市可持续发展等提供科学方法与决策参考。     

内蒙古土地利用变化对生态系统防风固沙功能的影响

土壤风蚀是内蒙古的严重环境问题之一。在对内蒙古2000年到2010年的土地利用变化特征进行分析的基础上,分析了内蒙古土地利用变化的主要特征,以RWEQ模型估算了内蒙古2000年和2010年的固沙物质量,采用空间统计分析评估了固沙功能对土地利用变化的响应,结果表明:(1)2000—2010年土地利用变化以城镇高速发展、草地和湿地面积锐减、林地灌丛有所恢复以及荒漠环境改善为主要特征。(2)2000—2010的十年间内蒙古固沙物质总量增长了17.75%,草地总面积虽有所降低,但是部分区域草地覆盖度的上升增强了草地固沙能力,而林地的固沙物质量则由于农田、草地改为林地的短期内地表保护力的下降而有所降低。(3)十年间农田退耕还草、荒漠环境的改善、草地质量提高等土地利用变化方式有益于生态环境质量的提高,使生态防风固沙功能得以增强,造成固沙物质量提高了约0.25亿t。(4)农田开垦、城镇发展、荒漠化发展、湿地萎缩以及草地的退化等土地利用变化会使生态环境质量降低,生态系统防风固沙功能下降,累计造成的固沙物质量的减少总量约为0.19亿t。从十年间综合来看,内蒙古的土地利用变化对区域固沙功能有一定的增强作用,但是尚存在城镇发展过快、草地湿地转化压力过大、草地退化、荒漠化对固沙功能的弱化问题,需要在今后的土地利用规划和管理工作中予以改进以进一步增强区域固沙功能,构建北方地区生态安全屏障。     

城市化流域生态系统服务价值时空分异特征及其对土地利用程度的响应

以南京市九乡河流域为研究区域,以2003与2009年2景QuickBird影像数据为基本信息源,应用空间自相关模型,结合GIS空间分析技术,定量探讨了城市化流域生态系统服务价值时空分异特征,以及土地利用程度对生态服务价值空间分异的影响.结果表明:2003-2009年,九乡河流域生态系统服务总价值减少了2.59％,而流域生态系统服务价值的空间聚集性增强;生态服务价值的高-高区域主要集中在流域上游,低-低区域主要集中在流域下游的仙林大学城一带;九乡河流域生态系统服务价值空间分异发生了明显变化,下游仙林大学城一带低-低分布区快速扩张,而高-高分布区仅在九乡河源头及下游的局部区域有所增加;流域生态服务价值空间自相关表现出明显的尺度效应,随着研究尺度增大,生态服务价值的空间自相关性逐渐增强;九乡河流域生态服务价值的空间分异及其变化主要是由土地开发利用引起,流域土地利用程度对生态服务价值存在明显的负效应.     

泡桐属(Paulownia)花粉形态学的初步研究

泡桐属(Paulownia)花粉,均为近球形,具3(拟)孔沟,外壁外层有清楚的异胞网状雕纹,沟界极区明显。这些共同特征,说明泡桐属是一个种间亲缘极近的自然的属;其萌发孔类型,可作为泡桐属归入玄参科的证据之一。通过花粉形态的比较,对兰考泡桐、宜昌泡桐和建始泡桐的分类地位,提出了论证。     

Are soils in urban ecosystems compacted? A citywide analysis

Soil compaction adversely influences most terrestrial ecosystem services on which humans depend. This global problem, affecting over 68 million ha of agricultural land alone, is a major driver of soil erosion, increases flood frequency and reduces groundwater recharge. Agricultural soil compaction has been intensively studied, but there are no systematic studies investigating the extent of compaction in urban ecosystems, despite the repercussions for ecosystem function. Urban areas are the fastest growing land-use type globally, and are often assumed to have highly compacted soils with compromised functionality. Here, we use bulk density (BD) measurements, taken to 14 cm depth at a citywide scale, to compare the extent of surface soil compaction between different urban greenspace classes and agricultural soils. Urban soils had a wider BD range than agricultural soils, but were significantly less compacted, with 12 per cent lower mean BD to 7 cm depth. Urban soil BD was lowest under trees and shrubs and highest under herbaceous vegetation (e.g. lawns). BD values were similar to many semi-natural habitats, particularly those underlying woody vegetation. These results establish that, across a typical UK city, urban soils were in better physical condition than agricultural soils and can contribute to ecosystem service provision.     

北方农牧交错带多伦县生态系统服务权衡与协同关系研究

科学理解生态系统服务的权衡/协同关系,对于正确指导生态系统可持续管理实践具有重要意义。以位于北方农牧交错带的多伦县为研究区,基于土地利用/覆被、气象、土壤类型、归一化植被指数(NDVI)以及社会经济统计资料等多种数据,分析了2000年、2015年食物供给、碳固持、土壤保持、防风固沙及产水量5种生态系统服务的时空变化,识别了5种服务的供给热点区,并基于相关分析法从县域、乡镇及不同地类3种尺度上对生态系统服务间的权衡/协同关系进行分析。结果表明:(1)2000—2015年,食物供给与土壤保持量增幅较大,产水量与碳固持的供给量增幅较小,防风固沙量大幅下降,5种服务的空间格局基本保持不变;(2)多伦县1类热点区面积明显增加,3类热点区面积明显减少;面积占比超过50%的草地提供5种服务的能力强于耕地;(3)多伦县生态系统服务的权衡关系主要存在于产水量与土壤保持、产水量与碳固持、产水量与食物供给三对服务中;由于研究区生态系统环境的空间异质性较强,各乡镇和两种地类(草地和耕地)上分别只有4对和3对生态系统服务的权衡/协同关系与县域保持一致;(4)不同土地利用类型、海拔、土壤类型等因素的组合使多伦县乡镇之间及乡镇与县域之间的权衡/协同关系存在明显差异。因此,在生态环境更为复杂的整个北方农牧交错带,更需选取合适的空间尺度进行生态系统服务的权衡/协同关系分析,以指导决策者制定合理的生态系统管理措施。     

都市生态旅游区土地利用碎片化对生态系统服务价值的影响——以武汉东湖生态旅游区为例

都市生态旅游区是都市生态系统重要的组成部分,聚焦其土地利用碎片化对区域生态系统服务价值的影响,有助于促进都市生态旅游区的保护与合理开发,维护都市生态系统服务的稳定。结合RS、GIS技术量化评估2000—2015年武汉东湖生态旅游区土地生态系统服务价值,并通过景观格局指数测定土地利用碎片化程度,进而理清土地利用和生态系统服务价值的时空演化趋势,最后剖析土地利用碎片化对生态系统服务价值的影响。结果表明:(1)2000—2015年,主要地类向建设用地转换量较大;土地景观明显碎片化趋势,斑块密度由1.67升至1.96,景观多样性指数则由1.59增至1.71。(2)15年间,土地生态系统整体及各项服务价值均呈逐年下降趋势,总价值减少6248.81万元,水域占总体服务价值的80%左右。(3)草地和耕地的面积变化与部分调节性和供给性功能的价值变化呈显著正相关,水域的面积变化对部分支持性和文化性功能的价值和总体价值的下降具有显著推动作用;区域景观斑块密度指数、景观多样性指数和林地、水域的破碎度指数变化与部分支持性和文化性功能的价值变化存在显著相关;水域的碎片化成为东湖观光游憩等文化性功能的价值及生态系统服务总价值下降的关键因素。     

厦门市土地利用变化下的生态敏感性

当前,城市化与全球变化背景叠加,海岸带生态系统发生了巨大的变化,沿海城市在全球变化下的脆弱性、敏感性与适应能力等问题已经成为政府和科学界关注的重要问题.土地利用变化是导致生态系统敏感性的重要因素之一.以厦门市作为沿海城市的典型代表,对近20 a土地利用变化下的生态敏感性进行系统研究.分析了城市建设用地扩张、围填海等主要土地利用活动对生态敏感性的影响机制;其次建立土地利用变化下的生态敏感性指数,并分析其变化过程;最后通过ArcGIS图层叠加计算功能,获得生态敏感性空间分布状况.结果表明:1987-2007年厦门市城市建设用地面积由1987年的67.48 km2,增加为2007年的308.21 km2,扩张了4.57倍,主要为蚕食农业用地和林地而来;海岸线长度由1987年的290.19 km,增加为1992年的343.23 km,而后减小为2007年的299.93 km,围垦养殖活动使得岸线变得曲折,填海造地活动导致岸线变得平滑.厦门市土地利用强度由1987年的2.44逐年增加为2007年的2.52,生态系统服务价值总体呈现减小的趋势,由1987年的7.39×109元减少到2007年的7.02× 109元,土地利用强度与生态系统服务价值呈现负相关关系.土地利用变化下的生态敏感性指数由1992年的1.50增加为1997年的4.94,而后减小为2002年的4.12,再增加为2007年的4.47.整体而言,近20a来厦门市生态系统对土地利用变化的敏感性灵敏响应程度不很剧烈,生态敏感性高的区域主要位于沿海区域.     

沈阳市城区绿地生态系统服务价值的时空变化

城市绿地是城市自然生态系统的组成部分,具有十分重要的生态服务功能.基于沈阳市城区2005、2010和2015年3期土地利用数据,参照中国生态系统单位面积生态服务价值当量,计算沈阳市绿地系统生态服务价值,分析其时空变化特征及变化速率.结果表明: 研究期间,沈阳市耕地面积降低最明显,2005—2010和2010—2015年的降幅分别达3.5%、10.9%;林地面积增加幅度较小,草地面积的增幅达17.2%.2005—2010年,沈阳绿地生态系统服务价值从2005年的11.76亿元增加至2010年的23.48亿元,然后下降至2015年的11.29亿元.各行政区绿地生态系统服务价值年变化存在显著差异,于洪区、沈北新区以及和平区变化最显著,变异系数分别达到64.9%、60.4%和40.8%,不同行政区绿地生态系统服务价值也存在显著差异,皇姑区、棋盘山区和东陵区地均生态系统服务价值较高.研究区土壤保持功能的服务价值最高,占总服务价值的15%以上.研究期间,粮食生产功能的服务价值降低最明显,城市扩张和农业用地转变以及城市公园绿地的建设是绿地生态系统服务价值变化的主要因素.     

Land management implications for ecosystem services in a South African rangeland

In South Africa, restoration and sustainable management of historically overgrazed and degraded rangelands are promoted to increase biodiversity and ecosystem service provision. This study evaluates different land management scenarios in terms of ecosystem services in a South African rangeland, the Baviaanskloof catchment. As measured data were limited, we used simple models to quantify and map the effect of the different combination of agricultural, nature conservation and restoration practices on multiple ecosystem services. The land management scenarios were evaluated against management targets set for individual ecosystem services. Results highlight how the provision of ecosystem services is related to land management as unmanaged, pristine ecosystems provide a different mix of ecosystem services than ecosystems recently restored or managed as grazing lands. Results also indicate that historically overgrazed lands provide no forage, may retain 40% less sediment and have 38% lower biodiversity, while providing 60% more fuel wood and supplying two and half times more water (i.e. retaining less water), than pristine or restored lands. We conclude that a combination of light grazing, low input agriculture, nature conservation and restoration is the best for the sufficient provision of multiple ecosystem services. Applying such mixed management would improve biodiversity, ecotourism and maintain forage production and regulating services on farmers’ land. This management option also fits into and further optimizes local decision-makers’ vision regarding the future management of the area.     

Comparison of soil microbial communities inhabiting vineyards and native sclerophyllous forests in central Chile

Natural ecosystems provide services to agriculture such as pest control, soil nutrients, and key microbial components. These services and others in turn provide essential elements that fuel biomass productivity. Responsible agricultural management and conservation of natural habitats can enhance these ecosystem services. Vineyards are currently driving land‐use changes in many Mediterranean ecosystems. These land‐use changes could have important effects on the supporting ecosystems services related to the soil properties and the microbial communities associated with forests and vineyard soils. Here, we explore soil bacterial and fungal communities present in sclerophyllous forests and organic vineyards from three different wine growing areas in central Chile. We employed terminal restriction fragment length polymorphisms (T‐RFLP) to describe the soil microbial communities inhabiting native forests and vineyards in central Chile. We found that the bacterial community changed between the sampled growing areas; however, the fungal community did not differ. At the local scale, our findings show that fungal communities differed between habitats because fungi species might be more sensitive to land‐use change compared to bacterial species, as bacterial communities did not change between forests and vineyards. We discuss these findings based on the sensitivity of microbial communities to soil properties and land‐use change. Finally, we focus our conclusions on the importance of naturally derived ecosystem services to vineyards.     

Implications of land cover change on ecosystems services and people’s dependency: A case study from the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve,Nepal

Protected areas, a corestone of biodiversity conservation, provide a vast array of ecosystem services to support livelihoods of people. However, protected areas, especially freshwater, are under threat with overexploitation of resources changing the land covers and degrading their capacity to supply services. Information on land cover changes and its implications on ecosystems, its services and people, especially in developing countries at a local scale, is largely absent. This study, therefore, seeks to understand people's dependency on ecosystem services and implications of land cover change on ecosystem services and people, with a case study in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve of Nepal. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods, our findings show high dependency of the locals on a vast array of ecosystem services provided by the reserve. More than half of the sampled households were found to directly derive income from ecosystem services of the reserve. However, land cover changes especially declines in forest (16%), swamps/marshes (4%), rivers (14%) and other ecosystems over a period of 34-years impacted the provision of ecosystem services and people’s dependency notably. The services from forests declined by about 94%, swamps services by 36% and services from river by 57% which were reported to be the high service suppliers. People's dependency, as perceived by the locals, was reduced by 67% over the last ten years. The study highlighting the supply, demand and implications on ecosystem services and people helped to better understand the complex interaction between humans and ecosystems. These results can be used to develop holistic approaches to restore, conserve and manage the ecosystems, and its services by balancing equal supply and demand of ecosystem services required for a self-sustaining human-environment system. It can also contribute to development of important environmental policies and programs in the area.     

Land use efficiency: anticipating future demand for land‐sector greenhouse gas emissions abatement and managing trade‐offs with agriculture,water, and biodiversity

Competition for land is increasing, and policy needs to ensure the efficient supply of multiple ecosystem services from land systems. We modelled the spatially explicit potential future supply of ecosystem services in Australia's intensive agricultural land in response to carbon markets under four global outlooks from 2013 to 2050. We assessed the productive efficiency of greenhouse gas emissions abatement, agricultural production, water resources, and biodiversity services and compared these to production possibility frontiers (PPFs). While interacting commodity markets and carbon markets produced efficient outcomes for agricultural production and emissions abatement, more efficient outcomes were possible for water resources and biodiversity services due to weak price signals. However, when only two objectives were considered as per typical efficiency assessments, efficiency improvements involved significant unintended trade‐offs for the other objectives and incurred substantial opportunity costs. Considering multiple objectives simultaneously enabled the identification of land use arrangements that were efficient over multiple ecosystem services. Efficient land use arrangements could be selected that meet society's preferences for ecosystem service provision from land by adjusting the metric used to combine multiple services. To effectively manage competition for land via land use efficiency, market incentives are needed that effectively price multiple ecosystem services.     

The impact of projected increases in urbanization on ecosystem services

Alteration in land use is likely to be a major driver of changes in the distribution of ecosystem services before 2050. In Europe, urbanization will probably be the main cause of land-use change. This increase in urbanization will result in spatial shifts in both supplies of ecosystem services and the beneficiaries of those services; the net outcome of such shifts remains to be determined. Here, we model changes in urban land cover in Britain based on large (16%) projected increases in the human population by 2031, and the consequences for three different services--flood mitigation, agricultural production and carbon storage. We show that under a scenario of densification of urban areas, the combined effect of increasing population and loss of permeable surfaces is likely to result in 1.7 million people living within 1 km of rivers with at least 10 per cent increases in projected peak flows, but that increasing suburban 'sprawl' will have little effect on flood mitigation services. Conversely, losses of stored carbon and agricultural production are over three times as high under the sprawl as under the 'densification' urban growth scenarios. Our results illustrate the challenges of meeting, but also of predicting, future demands and patterns of ecosystem services in the face of increasing urbanization.     

1998-2014年艾比湖湿地自然保护区生态系统服务价值及其时空变异

湿地的生态系统服务价值是生态学研究的热点之一。以艾比湖湿地自然保护区为研究区,以1998年的TM影像、2006年的Landsat ETM+影像及2014年的Landsat OLI影像为数据源,采用Costanza生态系统服务价值公式进行生态系统服务价值评估,结合空间自相关模型,定量探讨了艾比湖湿地自然保护区生态系统服务价值时空分异特征。结果表明：（1）近20年来,研究区的土地利用/覆被变化显著,除了水体和裸地面积减少,其它土地覆被类型面积都有不同比例的增加。（2）在生态系统服务价值方面,近20年来ESV（Ecosystem Services Values）整体变化不大,但近年ESV有所降低,生态环境出现恶化趋势。（3）在生态系统服务的时空变异方面,研究区ESV空间正相关显著,空间集聚程度高值区主要集中在艾比湖水域和湿地,并且高值区有增加向减少转变的趋势,低值聚集区在湖区四周,且逐年增加。（4）近20年来,影响研究区生态系统服务价值时空变化的驱动力因素主要包括自然因素和人为因素,人为因素是研究区生态系统服务价值时空变化的主要驱动因素。     

Meta-ecosystems: a theoretical framework for a spatial ecosystem ecology

This contribution proposes the meta‐ecosystem concept as a natural extension of the metapopulation and metacommunity concepts. A meta‐ecosystem is defined as a set of ecosystems connected by spatial flows of energy, materials and organisms across ecosystem boundaries. This concept provides a powerful theoretical tool to understand the emergent properties that arise from spatial coupling of local ecosystems, such as global source–sink constraints, diversity–productivity patterns, stabilization of ecosystem processes and indirect interactions at landscape or regional scales. The meta‐ecosystem perspective thereby has the potential to integrate the perspectives of community and landscape ecology, to provide novel fundamental insights into the dynamics and functioning of ecosystems from local to global scales, and to increase our ability to predict the consequences of land‐use changes on biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services to human societies.