The effect of carbon credits on savanna land management and priorities for biodiversity conservation

Carbon finance offers the potential to change land management and conservation planning priorities. We develop a novel approach to planning for improved land management to conserve biodiversity while utilizing potential revenue from carbon biosequestration. We apply our approach in northern Australia's tropical savanna, a region of global significance for biodiversity and carbon storage, both of which are threatened by current fire and grazing regimes. Our approach aims to identify priority locations for protecting species and vegetation communities by retaining existing vegetation and managing fire and grazing regimes at a minimum cost. We explore the impact of accounting for potential carbon revenue (using a carbon price of US$14 per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent) on priority areas for conservation and the impact of explicitly protecting carbon stocks in addition to biodiversity. Our results show that improved management can potentially raise approximately US$5 per hectare per year in carbon revenue and prevent the release of 1-2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent over approximately 90 years. This revenue could be used to reduce the costs of improved land management by three quarters or double the number of biodiversity targets achieved and meet carbon storage targets for the same cost. These results are based on generalised cost and carbon data; more comprehensive applications will rely on fine scale, site-specific data and a supportive policy environment. Our research illustrates that the duel objective of conserving biodiversity and reducing the release of greenhouse gases offers important opportunities for cost-effective land management investments.     

Identifying biodiversity hotspots for threatened mammal species in Iran

Conservation biology has much more attention for biodiversity hot spots than before. In order to recognize the hotspots for Iranian terrestrial mammal species that are listed in any red list, nationally or globally, ten Species Distribution Models (SDMs) have been applied. The SDMs evaluation results based on the TSS and AUC values showed that all ten models of habitat suitability perform significantly better than the random selection for all studied species. According to the results, biodiversity hotspots for threatened mammal species are located in north, west and central of Iran, along the Zagros and Alborz mountain range. Therefore, habitats for threatened mammal species have been limited to small parts of Iran (approximately 27% of the country). These areas are severely fragmented and only 57% of them have been announced protected by the current conservation system. The suggestion is that, as the sustainability of these habitats would strongly depend on maintaining dispersal corridors to facilitate the movement of animals among the habitat fragments, conservation efforts should focus on those hotspots which are not formally protected under conservation laws.     

The occurrence of the red-handed howler monkey (Alouatta belzebul) in amazonian savannas is related to forest patch area and density of flooded area palms

All Neotropical primates are arboreal and thus depend on forests for their survival. Arboreality puts many Neotropical primates at risk of extinction due to the high rates of deforestation in the tropics. We assessed the influence of vegetation structure and forest patch attributes on the occurrence of the threatened red-handed howler monkey (Alouatta belzebul) in an Amazonian savanna. Using a sample of 38 forest patches in a region of approximately 2000 km² in the state of Amapá, northern Brazil, we used logistic regression to find the best predictors of the occurrence of A. belzebul. We assessed patch area, patch isolation, the proportion of seasonally flooded forest in the patch, the density of flooded area palms, forest height, canopy cover, and diameter at breast height of trees. Patch area and palm density were the best predictors of the occurrence of A. belzebul in forest patches, both having a positive effect on the probability of occurrence. Our results indicate that areas of flooded forest in forest patches may be keystone habitats for A. belzebul living in Amazonian savannas. The observed effect of palm density on A. belzebul suggests that this variable is useful for planning conservation actions, including the selection of areas for protection and management strategies for areas inhabited by this primate.     

Integrating spatially explicit habitat projections into extinction risk assessments: a reassessment of Amazonian avifauna incorporating projected deforestation

Aim We aimed to complete the first systematic assessment of extinction risk based on projected population declines derived from spatially explicit habitat projections for any taxonomic group at a regional scale, to use the outputs to ascertain the efficacy of an existing protected area network in covering species of conservation concern, and identify gaps therein. Location This study focused on Amazonia; an area of exceptional biodiversity, currently experiencing the highest absolute rate of forest loss globally but where the proportion of species assessed as ‘threatened’ on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List in the region is below global averages. Methods For all forest‐dependent Amazonian bird species (814), we revised extinction risk estimates by combining data from a spatially explicit deforestation model with generation length estimates. By overlaying distribution maps for these revised threatened species, we identified crisis areas (areas of projected deforestation supporting the highest numbers of threatened species), refugia (areas projected to retain forest supporting the highest numbers of threatened species) and areas of high irreplaceability: short‐ and long‐term priorities for new protected areas (PAs). Results The number of species qualifying as threatened rose substantially from 24 (3%) to 64–92 (8–11%). Areas of particular concern are the crisis and highly irreplaceable areas within the ‘arc of deforestation’ in the southern Brazilian Amazon states of Rondônia, Mato Grosso and Pará. Main conclusions Through a novel application of the IUCN Red List criteria, we present a spatially accurate rendering of the extinction risks of Amazonian birds. Important areas in the Amazon are not secure. We identify priorities for expansion of the PAs network and key locations where protection should be enforced. We recommend a collaborative approach employing our methods to repeat this process for other taxonomic groups.     

Conservation of Chinese Theaceae species under future climate and land use changes

Aim

Climate and land use changes are two major pervasive and growing global causes of rapid changes in the distribution patterns of biodiversity, challenging the future effectiveness of protected areas (PAs), which were mainly designed based on a static view of biodiversity. Therefore, evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas for protecting the species threatened by climate and land use change is critical for future biodiversity conservation.

Location

China.

Methods

Here, using distributions of 200 Chinese Theaceae species and ensemble species distribution models, we identified species threatened by future climate and land use change (i.e. species with predicted loss of suitable habitat ≥30%) under scenarios incorporating climate change, land use change and dispersal. We then estimate the richness distribution patterns of threatened species and identify priority conservation areas and conservation gaps of the current PA network.

Results

Our results suggest that 36.30%–51.85% of Theaceae species will be threatened by future climate and land use conditions and that although the threatened species are mainly distributed at low latitudes in China under both current and future periods, the mean richness of the threatened species per grid cell will decline by 0.826–3.188 species by the 2070s. Moreover, we found that these priority conservation areas are highly fragmented and that the current PA network only covers 14.21%–20.87% of the ‘areas worth exploring’ and 6.91%–7.91% of the ‘areas worth attention’.

Main Conclusions

Our findings highlight the necessity of establishing new protected areas and ecological corridors in priority conservation areas to protect the threatened species. Moreover, our findings also highlight the importance of taking into consideration the potential threatened species under future climate and land use conditions when designating priority areas for biodiversity conservation.     

Biodiversity hotspots are not congruent with conservation areas in the Gulf of California

As marine systems are threatened by increasing human impacts, mechanisms to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services are needed. Protecting areas of conservation importance may serve as a proxy for maintaining these functions, while also facilitating efficient use and management of limited resources. Biodiversity hotspots have been used as surrogates for spatial conservation importance; however, as many protected areas have been established opportunistically and under differing criteria, it is unclear how well they actually protect hotspots. We evaluated how well the current protected area network and priority areas selected through previous systematic conservation planning exercises preserve biodiversity hotspots in the Gulf of California, Mexico. We also determined spatial congruence between biodiversity hotspots based on different criteria, which may determine their ability to be used as surrogates for each other. We focus on the Gulf of California because it is a megadiverse system where limited information regarding species diversity and distribution has constrained development of strategies for conservation and management. We developed a species occurrence database and identified biodiversity hotspots using four different criteria: species richness, rarity, endemism, and threatened species. We interpolated species occurrence, while accounting for heterogeneous sampling efforts. We then assessed overlap of hotspots with existing protected areas and priority areas, and between hotspots derived by distinct criteria. We gathered 286,533 occurrence records belonging to 12,105 unique species, including 6388 species identified as rare, 642 as endemic, and 386 as threatened. We found that biodiversity hotspots showed little spatial overlap with areas currently under protection and previously identified priority areas. Our results highlight the importance of distinct spatial areas of biodiversity and suggest that different ecological mechanisms sustain different aspects of diversity and multiple criteria should be used when defining conservation areas.     

Spatial conservation priorities are highly sensitive to choice of biodiversity surrogates and species distribution model type

Pressure to conserve biodiversity with limited resources has led to increasing use of species distribution models (SDMs) for spatial conservation prioritization. Published spatial prioritization exercises often focus on well‐studied groups, with data compiled from on‐line databases of ad‐hoc collections. Conservation plans generally aim to protect all components of biodiversity, and it is implied that the species used in prioritization act as surrogates. Here, we assess the sensitivity of spatial priorities to model and surrogate choice using a case study from a fragmented agricultural area of south eastern Australia that is poorly represented in the national reserve system. We model the distributions of 30 species of bird, microbat and bee using two types of SDM; generalised linear models based on systematic surveys that yield presence and absence observations, and MaxEnt models based on biodiversity database records. Eight prioritization scenarios were tested using Zonation software, and were based on either the presence–background or presence–absence SDMs and combinations of surrogacy among the three taxa. We found low correlations between SDMs generated for the same species using different modelling frameworks (μ = 0.18, n = 26). Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) estimates generated by MaxEnt were optimistic; on average 1.36 times higher than when tested against the systematic survey data. Conservation priorities were sensitive to the choice of surrogate and type of data used to fit SDMs, and though bats and birds formed moderately good surrogates for each other, there was less compelling evidence of surrogacy for bees. Because valid surrogacy is unlikely with most existing data sets, investment in high quality data for less‐surveyed groups prior to planning should still be a priority. If this is not possible, then it is advisable to analyse the sensitivity of conservation plans to the assumed surrogacy and quality of data available.     

Safeguarding sloths and anteaters in the future: Priority areas for conservation under climate change

Sloths and anteaters form the monophyletic order Pilosa, which is currently represented by only 16 extant species distributed exclusively in the Neotropics. This present-day low species richness is an inheritance of the Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, where over 65 Pilosa species known from the fossil record went extinct. The large number of species lost in the recent past suggests that this group is greatly vulnerable to extinction. Here, we propose long-term priority conservation areas for the order Pilosa, considering different future climate change scenarios, biotic stability, and the multiple dimensions of the group's biodiversity, such as species richness, species endemism, and phylogenetic diversity. Projections of species distribution for future scenarios show increased fragmentation and clear habitat loss as the Amazon Forest is replaced by savanna-like habitats. Conservation solutions were highly congruent for the different dimensions of biodiversity, with priority areas emerging mainly in the Atlantic Forest, Amazonian wetlands, highlands of Ecuador, and the Central American isthmus. Expanding the currently protected areas network by 6% with the proposed priority areas, independently of which future climatic scenario is considered, can increase sloths and anteaters' coverage in the future by 12%. As a group of high phylogenetic and ecological importance, future conservation planning should deliberately aim to protect areas favorable to Pilosa, especially given the current scenario of environmental dismantling and neglect of critical Neotropical biomes.     

Using legumes as indicators in the seasonally dry vegetation types in South America

The South American corridor of seasonally dry vegetation (SACSV) includes different types of physiognomies forming a continuous corridor with high biodiversity and endemism; however, little attention has been paid to the conservation of the SACSV. As this is an area with great diversity, cataloguing all the species is challenging. Thus, we suggest the use of Leguminosae species (trees and shrubs) as bioindicators of the different types of vegetation present in the area and to identify priority areas for conservation of the SACSV, since the family is highly represented in this vegetation. The study area was divided into 358 grid cells with recorded specimens. For each grid cell, species richness, taxonomic diversity, number of species restricted to one type of vegetation, and threatened and indicator species of phytogeographic domain were calculated. To determine the phytogeographic domains and indicator species, analysis of similarity, cluster and indicator species (ISA) were performed. The results show that 43% of the grid cells (154) have high biological importance for conservation (high taxonomic diversity, species richness and number of restricted species), all of which lie outside of protected areas. We identified 72 indicator species for seven floristic units, which, in general, include areas of the same phytogeographic domain, supporting the existing classification systems. We suggest that for effective conservation of biodiversity present in the SACSV, it is necessary to establish protected areas throughout the SACSV.     

Do biodiversity hotspots match with rodent conservation hotspots?

Biodiversity hotspots are used widely to designate priority regions for conservation efforts. It is unknown, however, whether the current network of hotspots adequately represents globally threatened taxonomic diversity for whole plant and animal groups. We used a mammalian group traditionally neglected in terms of conservation efforts, the rodents, in order to test whether biodiversity hotspots match the current distribution of threatened taxa (genera and species). Significantly higher numbers of threatened rodent genera and species fell within biodiversity hotspots; nonetheless over 25% of the total threatened genera and species did not occur in any biodiversity hotspot. This was particularly true for the Australian region, where 100% of the threatened genera and species fell outside biodiversity hotspots, with many threatened taxa found in Papua-New Guinea. We suggest to officially including Papua New Guinea among biodiversity hotspots for rodents, and also the steppic/semidesert areas of central Asia.     

Priority areas for the conservation of South African vegetation: a coarse-filter approach

Abstract.  South Africa has an important responsibility to global biodiversity conservation, but a largely inadequate conservation area network for addressing this responsibility. This study employs a coarse-filter approach based on 68 potential vegetation units to identify areas that are largely transformed, degraded or impacted upon by road-effects. The assessment highlights broad vegetation types that face high biodiversity losses currently or in the near future due to human impacts. Most vegetation types contain large tracts of natural vegetation, with little degradation, transformation or impacts from road networks. Regions in the grasslands, fynbos and forest biomes are worst affected. Very few of the vegetation types are adequately protected according to the IUCN's 10% protected area conservation target, with the fynbos and savanna biomes containing a few vegetation types that do achieve this arbitrary goal. This investigation identifies areas where limited conservation resources should be concentrated by identifying vegetation types with high levels of anthropogenic land use threats and associated current and potential biodiversity loss.     

Remote sensing variables improve species distribution models for alpine plant species

Species distribution models (SDMs) are cost-effective, transparent and flexible planning tools to support various areas in nature conservation. Variables taken from remote sensing (RS) are broadly applicable to biodiversity studies. In our study, we combined RS-variables (normalized differenced vegetation index and land surface temperatures), with topographic and geological variables to produce detailed SDMs in the context of a seed collection campaign of the Alpine Seed Conservation and Research Project. To identify effective predictor variable combinations we compiled three different variable sets and compared the predictive model performance.The full model, that combines all types of variables, slightly outperforms (average values for TSS: 0.91, AUC: 0.98, Kappa: 0.7) models that use topo-climatic variables (average values for TSS: 0.91, AUC: 0.98, Kappa: 0.68) or NDVI (average values for TSS: 0.85, AUC: 0.96, Kappa: 0.54) alone. We also produced ensemble models that performed slightly better compared to the different model algorithms used in our approach. We identified the temperature of the coldest month, mean NDVI and bedrock as important variables that determine the distribution of alpine plant species.Our full models show high accordance with actual species distribution ranges and are highly relevant for efforts to identify special areas for either in-situ or ex-situ conservation.     

Threatened plants of New Caledonia: Is the system of protected areas adequate?

With 76% of its 3063 native species of flora endemic, the New Caledonia biodiversity hotspot has long been recognized as having a high potential for conservation. Under the new IUCN Red List categories, 25% of the endemic plants are at risk (Conservation Dependent, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered), and five species are already extinct. A review of their distribution demonstrates that 83% of the threatened species do not occur at all in a conservation area, and only 11% have their conservation status improved by a protected area. The protected area network is geographically and floristically very unbalanced, with the rainforest and high altitude maquis in the south concentrating most of the conservation effort. Conversely, the middle and northern segments of the island, as well as all of the dry west coast, are left without adequate conservation area. Two vegetation types, the sclerophyll forest and the unique low/middle altitude maquis, are virtually totally unprotected. We conclude that the current network of protected areas needs to be considerably expanded, in terms of both geographical/floristic subregions within New Caledonia and vegetation type covered. With only 54% of the conservation area covered by strict mining restrictions, existing reserves need to have their conservation efficiency improved by a more vigorous enforcement of their status, and by extending mining bans to all of them.     

Maximizing species conservation in continental Ecuador: a case of systematic conservation planning for biodiverse regions

Ecuador has the largest number of species by area worldwide, but also a low representation of species within its protected areas. Here, we applied systematic conservation planning to identify potential areas for conservation in continental Ecuador, with the aim of increasing the representation of terrestrial species diversity in the protected area network. We selected 809 terrestrial species (amphibians, birds, mammals, and plants), for which distributions were estimated via species distribution models (SDMs), using Maxent. For each species we established conservation goals based on conservation priorities, and estimated new potential protected areas using Marxan conservation planning software. For each selected area, we determined their conservation priority and feasibility of establishment, two important aspects in the decision-making processes. We found that according to our conservation goals, the current protected area network contains large conservation gaps. Potential areas for conservation almost double the surface area of currently protected areas. Most of the newly proposed areas are located in the Coast, a region with large conservation gaps and irreversible changes in land use. The most feasible areas for conservation were found in the Amazon and Andes regions, which encompass more undisturbed habitats, and already harbor most of the current reserves. Our study allows defining a viable strategy for preserving Ecuador''s biodiversity, by combining SDMs, GIS-based decision-support software, and priority and feasibility assessments of the selected areas. This approach is useful for complementing protected area networks in countries with great biodiversity, insufficient biological information, and limited resources for conservation.     

Mammal indicator species for protected areas and managed forests in a landscape conservation area of northern India

There is a realization that managed forests and other natural areas in the landscape matrix can and must make significant contributions to biodiversity conservation. Often, however, there are no consistent baseline vegetation or wildlife data for assessing the status of biodiversity elements across protected and managed areas for conservation planning, nor is there a rapid and efficient means to acquire those data. We used a unified vegetation classification and simple animal sampling design to describe the patterns of abundance of selected mammals as indicator, or characteristic, species in different vegetation types and protected areas vs. managed forest units in the Terai Conservation Area (TCA) in northern Uttar Pradesh state, India. We quantified the relative abundance of 15 mammals of conservation concern from dung counts in vegetation sampling plots within 122 sample patches in 13 vegetation types and 4 management units. Assemblages of species differed both among vegetation types and among management units. Species assemblages in the two protected areas differed strongly from those in two managed forests. Grasslands in protected areas were the most species diverse among vegetation types and had several indicator species. Protected forests were dominated by chital (Axis axis) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in a second species group. A third species group in open grasslands and savannas in managed forests was characterized by cattle (Bos taurus) and Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis). Protected areas clearly are the core conservation area of the TCA for their relatively high habitat value and species diversity, and their protected status minimizes human disturbance. Impacts of human use are high in managed forests, indicating their compromised value for biodiversity conservation. Our simple assessment methodology gives managers a simple way to assess the status of important mammals across landscape conservation units.     

Impacts of land-use on West African savanna vegetation: a comparison between protected and communal area in Burkina Faso

Biodiversity matters in many aspects for human well-being by providing timber and non-timber products. The most important ecosystems providing these products in West Africa are savannas. In the context of land-use changes, there is an urgent need to understand the impact of land-use on savanna vegetation and biodiversity. This study assesses the impact of land-use on savannas by comparing protected and communal areas. Vegetation relevés were performed in the W National Park and its surrounding communal area in Burkina Faso. Vegetation types were established using ordination and clustering methods. We analyzed to find which environmental factors determine the occurrence of the vegetation types and whether land-use has a specific effect on diversity of vegetation types occurring in both areas. Furthermore, we tested the effect of land-use on vegetation structure and the occurrence of life forms and highly valued tree species. Our results reveal five vegetation types occurring in both areas. Elevation and soil characteristics played the most important role for the occurrence of the vegetation types. Land-use had an effect on vegetation structure, diversity, and the occurrence of life form and highly valued species. Our findings suggest that traditional human land-use does not automatically lead to loss of species and degradation of savanna habitats and that combination of communal and protected areas may be of great importance for the conservation of broad spectrum of biodiversity. Our study demonstrates the complexity of land-use impact on biodiversity patterns and provides insights on what kind of management activities may be most appropriate in both areas.     

Identifying priority sites for the conservation of freshwater fish biodiversity in a Mediterranean basin with a high degree of threatened endemics

The Guadiana River basin’s freshwater fish species richness, endemicity and threatened status (92% of native species are threatened) highlight the need for a large-scale study to identify priority areas for their conservation. One of the most common problems in conservation planning is the assessment of a site’s relative value for the conservation of regional biodiversity. Here we used a two-tiered approach, which integrates an assessment of biodiversity loss and the evaluation of conservation value through site-specific measures. These measures based on the reference condition approach introduce the ability to make objective comparisons throughout the Guadiana River basin, thus avoiding a priori target areas. We identified a set of biodiversity priority areas of special conservation significance—which contain rare taxa as well as intact fish communities—because of their outstanding contribution to the basin’s biodiversity. The inclusion of complete sub-basins in these priority areas might guarantee an optimal solution in terms of spatial aggregation and connectivity. However, the high spatial fragmentation to which the Guadiana River basin is submitted due to river regulation highlights the necessity of a systematic approach to evaluate the capability of the identified priority areas to maintain the Guadiana’s freshwater fish biodiversity. Handling editor: R. H. Norris     

Distribution,population density and conservation of the critically endangered brown spider monkey (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles hybridus</Emphasis>) and other primates of the inter-Andean forests of Colombia

The inter-Andean tropical rainforests and dry forests of the Magdalena river basin (Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot) in northern Colombia have undergone significant forest loss and degradation in recent decades. Six primate species inhabit this region, five of which are currently threatened with extinction and one of which—the brown spider monkey, Ateles hybridus—is considered critically endangered. Accurate and recent information on the distribution and conservation status of these threatened primate populations is scarce or nonexistent, even though such data are needed to implement successful conservation actions and management plans. Between 2006 and 2016, we evaluated the status and distribution of primates across inter-Andean lowland forests in northern Colombia. We visited 30 sites to evaluate the presence/absence of brown spider monkeys and other primate taxa in the region. We also carried out surveys at 10 of these sites to obtain estimates of primate population densities and demographic information from forests with different levels of anthropogenic disturbance. Novel data on primate presence/absence were obtained for 27 sites, and 136 records were collected in total. Only 33% of the sites visited were large forest fragments (>?500 Ha). This study confirms that at least six primate species are still present in the Rio Magdalena region, which represents the highest platyrrhine diversity west of the Andes. This study also confirms the persistence of a wild population of Colombian woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha lugens) in the Serranía de San Lucas. Assigning formal protected status to this region is an urgent priority for the conservation of primates in the Rio Magdalena region.     

A Global-Scale Evaluation of Primate Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Change

Human-induced climate change poses many potential threats to nonhuman primate species, many of which are already threatened by human activities such as deforestation, hunting, and the exotic pet trade. Here, we assessed the exposure and potential vulnerability of all nonhuman primate species to projected future temperature and precipitation changes. We found that overall, nonhuman primates will experience 10 % more warming than the global mean, with some primate species experiencing >1.5 °C for every °C of global warming. Precipitation changes are likely to be quite varied across primate ranges (from >7.5 % increases per °C of global warming to >7.5 % decreases). We also identified individual endangered species with existing vulnerabilities (owing to their small range areas, specialized diet, or restricted habitat use) that are expected to experience the largest climate changes. Finally, we defined hotspots of primate vulnerability to climate changes as areas with many primate species, high concentrations of endangered species, and large expected climate changes. Although all primate species will experience substantial changes from current climatic conditions, our hotspot analysis suggests that species in Central America, the Amazon, and southeastern Brazil, as well as portions of East and Southeast Asia, may be the most vulnerable to the anticipated impacts of global warming. It is essential that impacts of human-induced climate change be a priority for research and conservation planning in primatology, particularly for species that are already threatened by other human pressures. The vulnerable species and regional hotspots that we identify here represent critical priorities for conservation efforts, as existing challenges are expected to become increasingly compounded by the impacts of global warming.     

Taxonomy and conservation of Vietnam's primates: a review

Vietnam has the highest number of primate taxa overall (24-27) and the highest number of globally threatened primate taxa (minimum 20) in Mainland Southeast Asia. Conservation management of these species depends in part on resolving taxonomic uncertainties, which remain numerous among the Asian primates. Recent research on genetic, morphological, and acoustic diversity in Vietnam's primates has clarified some of these uncertainties, although a number of significant classification issues still remain. Herein, we summarize and compare the major current taxonomic classifications of Vietnam's primates, discuss recent advances in the context of these taxonomies, and suggest key areas for additional research to best inform conservation efforts in a region crucial to global primate diversity. Among the most important next steps for the conservation of Vietnam's primates is a new consensus list of Asian primates that resolves current differences between major taxonomies, incorporates recent research advances, and recognizes units of diversity at scales below the species-level, whether termed populations, morphs, or subspecies. Priority should be placed on recognizing distinct populations, regardless of the species concept in use, in order to foster the evolutionary processes necessary for primate populations to cope with inevitable environmental changes. The long-term conservation of Vietnam's primates depends not only on an accepted and accurate taxonomy but also on funding for on-the-ground conservation activities, including training, and the continued dedication and leadership of Vietnamese researchers and managers.