Innovative parental care in a myrmecophageous mammal

Male bat-eared foxes, Otocyon megalotis, are known to contribute extensively to parental care. Yet, the exact roles that males and females play in raising offspring remain relatively unexplored. Here, we describe interactions between adult foxes and their presumed offspring based on a pilot study on three family groups of a wild population in South Africa. We report the first recorded instance of dung provisioning observed in canids. A male bat-eared fox provided dung to his offspring during a foraging trip, presumably to give them access to the ensconced insects. Further, this male provisioned the young foxes with large, live insects. Similar to other researchers, we never observed provisioning by females, but the females in this population did interact socially with their young in addition to suckling. We emphasize the importance of anecdotal reports of novel behavioural responses in wild canids, as an accumulation of such evidence may reveal patterns of innovative behaviour presently unrecognized in this family.     

What chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) learn in a cooperative task

To examine the development of cooperation in a captive group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), we designed an apparatus which required the simultaneous traction by two animals to get a reward. Two chimpanzees, an adult male and an infant female in a group of six, produced most of the successful responses (pulling on two handles simultaneously). Visual behavior was used to try to determine what chimpanzees learned about the cooperative task. Propositions were made to investigate what kind of learning could be attributed to chimpanzees and were confronted with results. Both subjects learned the link between the presence of fruits on the apparatus and the possibility of getting a fruit. They also learned the importance of the partner at the apparatus to make a successful response. Only the adult male learned to take into account the behavior of the partner at the apparatus before pulling a handle. From a methodological point of view, the glances made by the animals can constitute a useful behavioral indicator of what the subjects learned in a given social situation.     

Ethogram of Celebes monkeys (Macaca nigra) in two captive habitats

A well-composed and stable group of Celebes monkeys in captivity (one dominant adult male, one sub-adult male, three juvenile males, three adult females, and two juvenile females; housed together for several years) were studied in three successive 10-week periods. The first two periods consisted of a preliminary study and replication of the animals' behaviors while in a large cage enclosure. In the third period, observations were gathered on the same animals while they were on a simulated island to which they had been permanently moved. The study was designed to obtain an ethogram on the monkeys as well as to compare their social behaviors in these two captive environments. With respect to the latter, the acquisition of an acculturated social behavior involving a water-filled moat surrounding their new island environment was observed.     

First report of captive New Guinea dingo (Canis dingo hallstromi) den-digging and parental behavior

New Guinea dingoes (NGDs) (Canis dingo hallstromi; Troughton [1957] Proc Roy Soc new South Wells 1955–1956:93–94) have been kept in zoos since 1956. Almost nothing is known of their wild behavior. These observations of a captive pair are the first documentation of natal den‐digging and parental behavior for this taxon. The main den, excavated near the top of a 1.5 m hill, consisted of a rounded chamber about 50.8 cm deep, with an entrance about 30.5 cm high and 40.6 cm wide. The dam frequently moved the pups from the natal den to secondary locations for short periods during the day and then back to the den, starting when the pups were 2 weeks old. When the pups were between 5 and 12 weeks of age, both parents regularly regurgitated for them. The sire expressed escalating threat behavior toward the male pup starting when the pup was 5 months old, and the female began threatening the female pups at about 6 months of age. Rejection of same‐sex offspring is usual for captive NGDs as the next breeding season approaches. Zoo Biol 30:445–450, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Do hairworms (Nematomorpha) manipulate the water seeking behaviour of their terrestrial hosts?

Several anecdotal reports in the literature have suggested that insects parasitized by hairworms (Nematomorpha) commit `suicide' by jumping into an aquatic environment needed by an adult worm for the continuation of its life cycle. Based on 2 years of observations at a swimming pool in open air, we saw this aberrant behaviour in nine insect species followed by the emergence of hairworms. We conducted field and laboratory experiments in order to compare the behaviour of infected and uninfected individuals of the cricket Nemobius sylvestris. The results clearly indicate that crickets infected by the nematomorph Paragordius tricuspidatus are more likely to jump into water than uninfected ones. The idea that this manipulation involved water detection from long distances by infected insects is not supported. Instead, our observations suggest that infected insects may first display an erratic behaviour which brings them sooner or later close to a stream and then a behavioural change that makes them enter the water.     

Immature and adult langur monkey (Presbytis entellus) males: Infant-initiated adoption in a colony group

This paper focuses on interactions of an immature male langur monkey (Presbytis entellus) with an adult male in a captive social group. During his mother's 2-week absence, an 8-month-old male actively sought and received care from two adults, including an adult male. The interactions of the 2 males are compared with the behavior of 12 other adult male-immature male pairs to illustrate variability in male-male relations for a species in which adult male-young interactions are reported to be minimal and in which males normally spend portions of their lives in all-male groups.     

Positive Reinforcement Training for a Trunk Wash in Nepal's Working Elephants: Demonstrating Alternatives to Traditional Elephant Training Techniques

Many trainers of animals in the zoo now rely on positive reinforcement training to teach animals to voluntarily participate in husbandry and veterinary procedures in an effort to improve behavioral reliability, captive management, and welfare. However, captive elephant handlers in Nepal still rely heavily on punishment- and aversion-based methods. The aim of this project was to determine the effectiveness of secondary positive reinforcement (SPR) in training free-contact elephants in Nepal to voluntarily participate in a trunk wash for the purpose of tuberculosis testing. Five female elephants, 4 juveniles and 1 adult, were enrolled in the project. Data were collected in the form of minutes of training, number of offers made for each training task, and success rate for each task in performance tests. Four out of 5 elephants, all juveniles, successfully learned the trunk wash in 35 sessions or fewer, with each session lasting a mean duration of 12 min. The elephants' performance improved from a mean success rate of 39.0% to 89.3% during the course of the training. This study proves that it is feasible to efficiently train juvenile, free-contact, traditionally trained elephants in Nepal to voluntarily and reliably participate in a trunk wash using only SPR techniques.     

Effects of a recurring late-night event on the behavior and welfare of a population of zoo-housed gorillas

The impact of visitors on the well-being of captive animals presents both positive and potentially negative consequences. While some amount of novelty through visitor stimulation offers the opportunity for a more complex captive environment, anecdotal evidence from primate staff observations at the Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute suggested that gorillas exhibited increased restlessness during the annual month-long late night ZooLights (ZL) event than before it. The current study compared activity budgets, aggression (interactions involving contact between conspecifics and displays toward visitors), and abnormal behaviors in two groups of socially housed gorillas for 1-month periods before, during, and after the 2015 ZL event. We also compared the fecal glucocorticoid metabolite profiles of all six gorillas across these same observation periods. Physiologically, most individuals appeared to cope appropriately with the increased visitor presence during the event. We saw little difference in contact aggression; however, abnormal behavior was observed in some gorillas during and after the event, which highlights the importance of individual analysis and data interpretation. As predicted, we found that the majority of gorillas rested less during ZL than during other observation periods, particularly adult females in the mixed sex troop. Preliminary results of this study aided the decision of zoo management to close initially the Great Ape House and subsequently most animal buildings during future ZL events to avoid the potential disruption of normal activity patterns. While the findings of this study were mixed as to the impact of the event on these gorillas, the results suggest that zoos should carefully consider the possible ramifications of keeping great ape buildings open for lengthy multi-night events.     

A social developmental study of young monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) within a captive family group

Quantitative data were collected on the behaviour of one captive family group of common marmoset monkeys over some six months, which included a period immediately before the birth of a third set of twins, and up to the birth of the fourth set. Data were consistently collected on marking, auto and social grooming, as well as on three general categories of play behaviour. In addition, observations were recorded on the carrying of infants by other members of their family, until the end of the fourth week after the birth. The study demonstrated quantitative changes in the behaviour of juvenile and adult members of the family, and indicated the time scale of increasing involvement of the youngest monkeys in some of the major patterns of behaviour in the life of a family social unit.     

Female social relationships in a captive group of Campbell's monkeys (Cercopithecus campbelli campbelli)

A study group of Campbell's monkeys (Cercopithecus c. campbelli) provided data on affiliative and agonistic relationships between females. Over a period of two years (involving 111 hr), we conducted observations of a captive group which had a composition similar to wild groups. We were able to identify a monitor-adjust social system with frequent affiliative interactions, directed gazing and avoidances rather than aggressive acts. We described long-term differentiated affiliative bonds: adult females interacting more often with some group mates than others, especially if they were relatives. Interactions between matrilines concerned essentially play and young adult females. We found a significant linear hierarchy of dominance with rare reversals and a stable intermatriline dominance. In contrast to other single-male groups, our adult male was socially integrated into the group although this may have been because of the housing conditions. Comparisons with the social organization of other captive and wild guenon groups are discussed.     

Welfare assessment in transgenic pigs expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)

Since large animal transgenesis has been successfully attempted for the first time about 25 years ago, the technology has been applied in various lines of transgenic pigs. Nevertheless one of the concerns with the technology--animal welfare--has not been approached through systematic assessment and statements regarding the welfare of transgenic pigs have been based on anecdotal observations during early stages of transgenic programs. The main aim of the present study was therefore to perform an extensive welfare assessment comparing heterozygous transgenic animals expressing GFP with wildtype animals along various stages of post natal development. The protocol used covered reproductory performance and behaviour in GFP and wildtype sows and general health and development, social behaviour, exploratory behaviour and emotionality in GFP and wildtype littermates from birth until an age of roughly 4 months. The absence of significant differences between GFP and wildtype animals in the parameters observed suggests that the transgenic animals in question are unlikely to suffer from deleterious effects of transgene expression on their welfare and thus support existing anecdotal observations of pigs expressing GFP as healthy. Although the results are not surprising in the light of previous experience, they give a more solid fundament to the evaluation of GFP expression as being relatively non-invasive in pigs. The present study may furthermore serve as starting point for researchers aiming at a systematic characterization of welfare relevant effects in the line of transgenic pigs they are working with.     

Individual and social behavior in a captive troop of mandrills (mandrillus sphinx)

Little is known about the behavior of mandrills in the wild, and few captive studies have been conducted. Individual and social behaviors of six captive mandrills were categorized and quantified. The captive troop consisted of one adult male, two adult females and three infants. Behavioral categories were constructed during 150 hr of preliminary observations. One hundred and sixty-seven hours of quantitative data were collected over an eight-month period. Although much of the mandrill's behavioral repertoire is similar toPapio, some facial expressions, body postures and various social behaviors were found to be unique.     

Exploring the Social Environment: a Developmental Study of Teasing in Chimpanzees

Long-term data on the occurrence of “teasing” in young chimpanzees living in the Arnhem Zoo chimpanzee colony are presented. They strengthen the hypotheses—presented in earlier papers—concerning the existence of two functional forms of this so-called quasi-aggressive behaviour and provide insight into the way in which they develop. Developmental changes are visible both in the performance of quasi-aggressive behaviour and in the effects evoked by the behaviour. The purpose of the reducing uncertainty type of quasi-aggressive behaviour, performed by male and female youngsters towards adult females, is to obtain more predictable responses. As youngsters grow older, they engage in this behaviour also to gain control over the responses of the target animals. Eventually, the quasi-aggressive behaviour of male youngsters develops into adult-like bluff and attack behaviour the purpose of which is to establish dominance relationships. The investigating authority type of quasi-aggressive behaviour, directed towards adult males, is associated increasingly with the exercise of power by the target males. The youngsters increasingly behave submissively towards the males and direct quasi-aggressive behaviour especially towards the alpha-male at moments when he is bluffing or involved in other conspicuous social interactions. These and other changes in the relationship between adult males and male youngsters are already visible well before the onset of puberty in the youngsters. It is discussed in how far the development of these exploratory aggression types involves social learning processes and how this fits in with current concepts concerning the development of aggressive behaviour.     

The context of social learning: association patterns in a captive flock of brown-headed cowbirds

Much work on social learning has involved behaviour transmission between pairs of individuals, but recently the need to examine the social context in which learning occurs has been recognized. Previous studies using small numbers of animals have shown social influence on the behavioural development of juvenile male brown-headed cowbirds, Molothrus ater. Here we looked at the larger social context that forms the framework for such influence in more natural settings. We allowed a captive group of over 70 cowbirds, comprising adult and juvenile males and females, to associate freely in a large complex of connected aviaries. Highly organized social assortment emerged in the group, with individuals associating with others based on similarity in age and sex. Juvenile males that associated more with adult males had higher courtship success. Juvenile males that associated more with females sang less over the year. These results indicate that the social context of social learning for juvenile males is not just random association with all other birds in the social group, but is a selective and structured pattern of interaction. Differences in navigating this social structure correlated with courtship success and vocalization, behaviour known to be affected by social learning. Studies such as this, using large groups with free assortment of individuals, are the first step towards understanding the effects of the larger social context surrounding social learning.     

Effects of manipulatable objects on the activity of captive capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)

The aim of this study was to evaluate simple behavioral enrichment procedures for a captive group of tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). We examined the effects of providing a manipulatable substrate (straw) and a variety of portable objects in the monkeys' home cage. The animals were observed across three conditions in two replications: 1) No portable objects were present; 2) a set of six identical portable objects was present; and 3) a set of six varied portable objects was present. The cage floor was bare in the first replication; straw was uniformly spread on the cage floor in the second replication. An 18-month period of qualitative note taking followed completion of the initial data collection phase. The presence of straw and portable objects affected patterns of affiliation by decreasing quiet contact and close proximity. Providing additional manipulative opportunities affected both the form and frequency of object-directed activities. Object contacts were directed toward a greater variety of targets, and some objects were spontaneously used as tools. Manipulation of provided objects and use of objects as tools have become routine activities in this group of monkeys. We conclude that providing straw and portable objects in an already well equipped cage is an effective means of long-term behavioral enrichment for captive capuchin monkeys. Enabling captive capuchins to express species-typical manipulative tendencies is apparently conducive to the monkeys' optimal physical and psychological well-being as well as interesting to the human observer.     

Further studies on development of nest-building behaviour in a weaverbird (Ploceus cucullatus)

Complete deprivation of nest materials for the first year significantly retarded development of weaving ability in yearling, male village weaverbirds. One male which reached 9 years of age and held territory in breeding colouration never learned to build a nest. Deprivation for the first year starting from 7 weeks of age had some retarding effect, significant only when deprived birds were matched by dominance rank with controls. The crude appearance of nest of yearling males is caused by lack of practice in selecting and preparing nest materials, but practice is necessary before the male can weave a nest. Prolonged deprivation during adult life had no effect on weaving ability if a male had learned to build nests during his first or second year.     

Adult male emigration and a female-based social organization in swift foxes, Vulpes velox

Members of the family Canidae are distinguished from other carnivore families by pair bonding and male care of the young. Because of the importance of food provisioning and territorial defence by males, social structure among canids is shared or even dominated by males. However, small, insectivorous species of canids show little male parental care, although whether social structure differs from other canids is unknown. We combined data from three independent research projects on a small canid, the swift fox, to help elucidate the social organization of this species. Based on data on movements of 35 adult mated pairs and the fate of litters, we found that adult females maintained territories and family structure, whereas adult males tended to emigrate. This is the first evidence of a female-based social organization among any canid species. This type of social organization probably resulted from the decreased importance of territorial defence and food provisioning by males, as their diet is primarily insectivorous during summer when young are weaned. Our results, along with others, indicate that variations in social structure among canid species are strongly influenced by the importance of food provisioning and territorial defence by males.     

Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in captive neotropical and exotic wild canids and felids

This study was designed to detect antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in wild captive carnivores maintained in Brazilian zoos. Blood samples were collected from 142 Brazilian wild felids and 19 exotic felids in zoos, and 3 European wolves (Canis lupus) and 94 Brazilian wild canids maintained in captivity in Brazilian zoos of S?o Paulo, Mato Grosso states and Federal District. One hundred and two (63.4%) and 70 (50.3%) of the 161 wild felids tested were seropositive for T. gondii and N. caninum by indirect immunofluorescent assay test (IFAT), respectively. Among sampled wild canids, 49 (50.5%) and 40 (41.2%) animals were seropositive for T. gondii and N. caninum antigens by IFAT, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first serological detection of antibodies to N. caninum in Brazilian wild captive felids and bush dogs (Speothos venaticus (Lund)).     

Alliance formation in a free-ranging troop of Japanese macaques

Alliance formations in a troop of free-ranging Japanese macaques, which had been provisioned 16 months before the present study was begun, were observed at the feeding ground for about 300 hr from April 1973 to March 1974. The patterns of alliance formations and their roles were described. The leader male had a quite unique role in his alliance formations; he allied much frequently with the aggressees and attacked the aggressors. Besides, the leader male allied more frequently with babies, yearlings, 2-year-old animals, and adult females, while he frequently attacked the 3- and 4-year-old animals and adult males. The animals who belonged to the same matrilineal group always allied with one another. Except the leader male, the troop members rather preferred to ally, except in those cases where the former diads involved their matrilineal group members, with the first aggressors. Networks of such alliance formations in relation with the social organization of Japanese macaques are discussed.